306
Views
3
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Management of children with persistent group A streptococcal carriage

&
Pages 787-795 | Received 10 Apr 2017, Accepted 17 Jul 2017, Published online: 31 Jul 2017

References

  • Athey TB, Teatero S, Li A, et al. Deriving group A streptococcus typing information from short-read whole-genome sequencing data. J Clin Microbiol. 2014 Jun;52(6):1871–1876.
  • Sarrell EM, Giveon SM. Streptococcal pharyngitis: a prospective study of compliance and complications. ISRN Pediatr. 2012;2012:796389.
  • Pichichero ME. Group A streptococcal tonsillopharyngitis: cost-effective diagnosis and treatment [Review]. Ann Emerg Med. 1995;25(3):390–403.
  • Kaplan EL. The group A streptococcal upper respiratory tract carrier state: an enigma. J Pediatr. 1980;97(3):337–345.
  • Bisno AL, Stevens DL. Streptococcal infections of skin and soft tissues. N Engl J Med. 1996;334:20–245.
  • Stevens DL. Toxic- shock like syndrome: spectrum of disease, pathogenesis, and new concepts in treatment. Emerg Infect Dis. 1995;1:69–78.
  • Sela S, Neeman R, Keller N, et al. Relationship between asymptomatic carriage of streptococcus pyogenes and the ability of the strains to adhere to and be internalized by cultured epithelial cells. J Med Microbiol. 2000;49(6):499–502.
  • Kikuta H, Shibata M, Nakata S, et al. Comparative study of 5-day and 10-day cefditoren pivoxil treatments for recurrent group A beta-hemolytic streptococcus pharyngitis in children. Int J Pediatr. 2009;2009:863608.
  • Pichichero ME, Green JL, Francis AB, et al. Recurrent group A streptococcal tonsillopharyngitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1998;17(9):809–815.
  • Pichichero ME, Casey JR, Mayes T, et al. Penicillin failure in streptococcal tonsillopharyngitis: causes and remedies [Review]. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2000;19(9):917–923.
  • Brook I. Penicillin failure in the treatment of acute and relapsing tonsillopharyngitis is associated with copathogens and alteration of microbial balance: a role for cefalosporins. Clin Pediatrics. 2007;46(4S):17S–24S.
  • DeMuri GP, Wald ER. The group A streptococcal carrier state reviewed: still an enigma. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc. 2014;3(4):336–342.
  • Nseir W, Mograbi J, Abu-Rahmeh Z, et al. The association between vitamin D levels and recurrent group A streptococcal tonsillopharyngitis in adults. Int J Infect Dis. 2012;16(10):e735–e738.
  • Tanz RR, Shulman ST. Chronic pharyngeal carriage of group A streptococci [Review]. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2007;26(2):175–176.
  • Prakash K, Lakshmy A. Streptococcal throat carriage in school children with special reference to seasonal incidence. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 1992;23(4):705–710.
  • Abdissa A, Asrat D, Kronvall G, et al. Throat carriage rate and antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of group A streptococci (GAS) in healthy Ethiopian school children. Ethiop Med J. 2011;49(2):125–130.
  • Shulman ST, Tanz RR. Group A streptococcal pharyngitis and immune-mediated complications: from diagnosis to management. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2010;8(2):137–150.
  • Brook I. Treatment of patients with acute recurrent tonsillitis due to group A beta-haemolytic streptococci: a prospective randomized study comparing penicillin and amoxicillin/clavulanate potassium. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1989;24(2):227–233.
  • Kaplan EL, Gastanaduy AS, Huwe BB. The role of the carrier in treatment failures after antibiotic for group A streptococci in the upper respiratory tract. J Lab Clin Med. 1981;98(3):326–335.
  • Shaikh N, Leonard E, Martin JM. Prevalence of streptococcal pharyngitis and streptococcal carriage in children: a meta-analysis. Pediatrics. 2010;126(3):e557–e564.
  • Danchin MH, Rogers S, Kelpie L, et al. Burden of acute sore throat and group A streptococcal pharyngitis in school-aged children and their families in Australia. Pediatrics. 2007;120(5):950–957.
  • Gunnarsson RK, Holm SE, Söderström M. The prevalence of beta-haemolytic streptococci in throat specimens from healthy children and adults. Implications for the clinical value of throat cultures. Scand J Prim Health Care. 1997;15(3):149–155.
  • Lin S, Kaplan EL, Rao X, et al. A school-based program for control of group A streptococcal upper respiratory tract infections: a controlled trial in southern China. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2008;27(8):753–755.
  • Martin JM, Green M, Barbadora KA, et al. Group A streptococci among school-aged children: clinical characteristics and the carrier state. Pediatrics. 2004;114(5):1212–1219.
  • Roberts AL, Connolly KL, Kirse DJ, et al. Detection of group A streptococcus in tonsils from pediatric patients reveals high rate of asymptomatic streptococcal carriage. BMC Pediatr. 2012;12:3.
  • Johnson DR, Kurlan R, Leckman J, et al. The human immune response to streptococcal extracellular antigens: clinical, diagnostic, and potential pathogenetic implications. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;50(4):481–490.
  • Ozturk CE, Yavuz T, Kaya D, et al. The rate of asymptomatic throat carriage of group A streptococcus in school children and associated ASO titers in Duzce, Turkey. Jpn J Infect Dis. 2004;57(6):271–272.
  • Dierksen KP, Inglis M, Tagg JR. High pharyngeal carriage rates of streptococcus pyogenes in Dunedin school children with a low incidence of rheumatic fever. N Z Med J. 2000;113(1122):496–499.
  • Lloyd CA, Jacob SE, Menon T. Pharyngeal carriage of group A streptococci in school children in Chennai. Indian J Med Res. 2006;124(2):195–198.
  • Marshall HS, Richmond P, Nissen M, et al. Group A streptococcal carriage and seroepidemiology in children up to 10 years of age in Australia. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2015;34(8):831–838.
  • Pontin IP, Sanchez DC, Di Francesco R. Asymptomatic group A streptococcus carriage in children with recurrent tonsillitis and tonsillar hypertrophy. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2016;86:57–59.
  • Abd El-Ghany SM, Abdelmaksoud AA, Saber SM, et al. Group A beta-hemolytic streptococcal pharyngitis and carriage rate among Egyptian children: a case-control study. Ann Saudi Med. 2015;35(5):377–382.
  • Bélard S, Toepfner N, Arnold B, et al. β-hemolytic streptococcal throat carriage and tonsillopharyngitis: a cross-sectional prevalence study in Gabon, Central Africa. Infection. 2015;43(2):177–183.
  • Weiss K, Laverdière M, Lovgren M, et al. Group A streptococcus carriage among close contacts of patients with invasive infections. Am J Epidemiol. 1999;149(9):863–868.
  • Kaplan EL, Chatwal GS, Rohde M. Reduced ability of penicillin to eradicate ingested group A streptococci from epithelial cells: clinical and pathogenic implications. Clin Inf Dis. 2006;43(11):1398–1406.
  • Flores AR, Jewell BE, Versalovic EM, et al. Natural variant of collagen-like protein A in serotype M3 group a streptococcus increases adherence and decreases invasive potential. Infect Immun. 2015;83(3):1122–1129.
  • Lynskey NN, Goulding D, Gierula M, et al. RocA truncation underpins hyper-encapsulation, carriage longevity and transmissibility of serotype M18 group A streptococci. PLoS Pathog. 2013;9(12):e1003842.
  • Neeman R, Keller N, Barzilai A, et al. Prevalence of internalisation-associated gene, prtF1, among persisting group-A streptococcus strains isolated from asymptomatic carriers. Lancet. 1998;352(9145):1974–1977.
  • Musumeci R, Blue CL, Milazzo I, et al. Internalization-associated proteins among streptococcus pyogenes isolated from asymptomatic carriers and children with pharyngitis. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;37:173–179.
  • Gorton D, Norton R, Layton R, et al. Presence of fibronectin-binding protein gene prtF2 in invasive group A streptococci in tropical Australia is associated with increased internalization efficiency. Microbes Infect. 2005;7(3):421–426.
  • Flores AR, Jewell BE, Yelamanchili D, et al. A single amino acid replacement in the sensor kinase LiaS contributes to a carrier phenotype in group A streptococcus. Infect Immun. 2015;83(11):4237–4246.
  • Flores AR, Olsen RJ, Cantu C, et al. Increased pilus production conferred by a naturally occurring mutation alters host-pathogen interaction in favor of carriage in streptococcus pyogenes. Infect Immun. 2017;85:e00949–16.
  • Medina E, Goldmann O, Toppel AW, et al. Survival of streptococcus pyogenes within host phagocytic cells: a pathogenic mechanism for persistence and systemic invasion. J Infect Dis. 2003;187(4):597–603.
  • Fiedler T, Köller T, Kreikemeyer TB. Streptococcus pyogenes biofilms-formation, biology, and clinical relevance. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2015;5:15.
  • Roberts AL, Connolly KL, Doern CD, et al. Loss of the group A Streptococcus regulator Srv decreases biofilm formation in vivo in an otitis media model infection. Infect Immun. 2010;78(11):4800–4808.
  • Gilbert P, Das J, Foley I. Biofilm susceptibility to antimicrobials. Adv Dent Res. 1997;11(1):160–167.
  • Brook I. Emergence and persistence of beta-lactamase producing aerobic and anaerobic bacteria in the oropharynx following penicillin treatment. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1988;114:667–670.
  • Lafontaine ER, Wall D, Serena L, et al. Moraxella catarrhalis coaggregates with Streptococcus pyogenes and modulates interactions of S.pyogenes with human epithelial cells. Infect Immun. 2004;72(11):6689–6693.
  • O’Connor SP, Cleary PP. In vivo streptococcus pyogenes C5a peptidase activity: analysis using transposon- and nitrosoguanidine-induced mutants. J Infect Dis. 1987;156(3):495–504.
  • Gerber MA, Tanz RR, Kabat W, et al. Potential mechanisms for failure to eradicate group A streptococci from the pharynx. Pediatrics. 1999;104(4 Pt 1):911–917.
  • Spinaci C, Magi G, Varaldo PE, et al. Persistence of erythromycin-resistant group a streptococci in cultured respiratory cells. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2006;25(10):880–883.
  • Shulman ST, Bisno AL, Clegg HW, et al. Clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis and management of group A streptococcal pharyngitis: 2012 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;55(10):1279–1282.
  • Doern CD, Roberts AL, Hong W, et al. Biofilm formation by group A streptococcus: a role for the streptococcal regulator of virulence (Srv) and streptococcal cysteine protease (SpeB). Microbiology. 2009;155(Pt 1):46–52.
  • Fux CA, Costerton JW, Stewart PS, et al. Survival strategies of infectious biofilms. Trends Microbiol. 2005;13(1):34–40.
  • Ogawa T, Terao Y, Okuni H, et al. Biofilm formation or internalization into epithelial cells enable streptococcus pyogenes to evade antibiotic eradication in patients with pharyngitis. Microb Pathog. 2011;51(1–2):58–68.
  • O’Seaghdha M, Wessels MR. Streptolysin O and its co-toxin NAD-glycohydrolase protect group A streptococcus from xenophagic killing. PLoS Pathog. 2013;9(6):e1003394.
  • Brook I, Gober AE. Bacterial interference by aerobic and anaerobic bacteria in children with recurrent group A beta-hemolytic strepharyngo-tonsillitisococcal tonsillitis. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1999;125:552–554.
  • Brook I. Beta-lactamase-producing bacteria and their role in infection. Rev Med Microbiol. 2005;16:91–99.
  • Brook I. Role of beta-lactamase-producing bacteria in the persistence of stepharyngo-tonsillitisococcal tonsillitis infection. Rev Infect Dis. 1984;6:601–607.
  • Tanz RR, Shulman ST, Barthel MJ, et al. Penicillin plus rifampin eradicates pharyngeal carriage of group A streptococci. J Pediatr. 1985;106(6):876–880.
  • Kaplan EL, Johnson DR. Unexplained reduced microbiological efficacy of intramuscular benzathine penicillin G and of oral penicillin V in eradication of group a streptococci from children with acute pharyngitis. Pediatrics. 2001;108(5):1180–1186.
  • Pichichero ME, Disney FA, Talpey WB, et al. Adverse and beneficial effects of immediate treatment of group A beta-hemolytic streptococcal pharyngitis with penicillin. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1987;6(7):635–643.
  • Kimberlin DW, Brady MT, Jackson MA, et al. Group A streptococcal infections. In: Red book: 2015 report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases American Academy of Pediatrics. 30th ed. Elk Grove Village (IL): American Academy of Pediatrics; 2015. [Section 3,732-744].
  • Tanz RR, Poncher JR, Corydon KE, et al. Clindamycin treatment of chronic pharyngeal carriage of group A streptococci. J Pediatr. 1991;119(1 Pt 1):123–128.
  • Cockerill FR, MacDonald KL, Thompson RL, et al. An outbreak of invasive group A streptococcal disease associated with high carriage rates of the invasive clone among school-aged children. JAMA. 1997;277(1):38–43.
  • Dumre SP, Sapkota K, Adhikari N, et al. Asymptomatic throat carriage rate and antimicrobial resistance pattern of streptococcus pyogenes in Nepalese school children. Kathmandu Univ Med J(KUMJ). 2009;7(28):392–396.
  • Menon T, Shanmugasundaram S, Kumar MP, et al. Group A streptococcal infections of the pharynx in a rural population in south India. Indian J Med Res. 2004;119(Suppl):171–173.
  • Dajani A, Taubert K, Ferrieri P, et al. Treatment of acute streptococcal pharyngitis and prevention of rheumatic fever: a statement for health professionals. Committee on Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease of the Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, the American Heart Association. Pediatrics. 1995;96(4 Pt 1):758–764.
  • Gee SC, Hageman TM. Palatability of liquid anti-infectives: clinician and student perceptions and practice outcomes. J Pediatr Pharmacol Ther. 2007;12(4):216–223.
  • Morita JY, Kahn E, Thompson T, et al. Impact of azithromycin on oropharyngeal carriage of group A streptococcus and nasopharyngeal carriage of macrolide-resistant streptococcus pneumonia. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2000;19(1):41–46.
  • Syrogiannopoulos GA, Grivea IN, Al-Lahham A, et al. Seven-year surveillance of emm types of pediatric group A streptococcal pharyngitis isolates in western Greece. PLoS One. 2013;8(8):e71558.
  • Lloyd CA, Jacob SE, Menon T. Antibiotic resistant beta-hemolytic streptococci. Indian J Pediatr. 2007;74(12):1077–1080.
  • Burton MJ, Glasziou PP, Chong LY, et al. Tonsillectomy or adenotonsillectomy versus non-surgical treatment for chronic/recurrent acute tonsillitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;11:CD001802.
  • Roos K, Grahn E, Holm SE, et al. Interfering alpha-streptococci as a protection against recurrent streptococcal tonsillitis in children. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 1993;25(1–3):141–148.
  • Roos K, Holm SE, Grahn E, et al. Alpha-strepharyngo-tonsillitisococci as a supplementary treatment of recurrent strepharyngo-tonsillitisococcal tonsillitis: a randomized placebo-controlled study. Scand J Infect Dis. 1993;25:31–35.
  • Roos K, Holm SE, Grahn- Hakansson E, et al. Recolonization with selected alpha-strepharyngotonsillitisococci for prophylaxis of recurrent streptococcal pharyngotonsillitis- a randomized placebo-controlled multicentre study. Scand J Infect Dis. 1996;28:459–462.
  • Falck G, Grahn- Hakansson E, Holm SE, et al. Tolerance and efficacy of interfering alpha-strepharyngotonsillitisococci in recurrence of strepharyngotonsillitisococcal pharyngotonsillitis: a placebo-controlled study. Acta Otolaryngol (Stockh). 1999;119:944–948.
  • Ciftci Z, Develioglu O, Arbak S, et al. A new horizon in the treatment of biofilm-associated tonsillitis. Ther Adv Respir Dis. 2014;8(3):78–83.
  • Reilly S, Timmis P, Beeden AG, et al. Possible role of the anaerobe in tonsillitis. J Clin Pathol. 1981;34:542–547.
  • Tuner K, Nord CE. Beta-lactamase-producing anaerobic bacteria in recurrent tonsillitis. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1982;10(suppl A):153–156.
  • Kielmovich IH, Keleti G, Bluestone CD, et al. Microbiology of obstructive tonsillar hypertrophy and recurrent tonsillitis. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1989;115:721–725.
  • Brook I, Hirokawa R. Treatment of patients with a history of recurrent tonsillitis due to group A beta-hemolytic streptococci. A prospective randomized study comparing penicillin, erythromycin, and clindamycin. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 1985;24(6):331–336.
  • Kaplan EL, Johnson DR. Eradication of group A streptococci from the upper respiratory tract by amoxicillin with clavulanate after oral penicillin V treatment failure. J Pediatr. 1988;113:400–403.
  • Holm S, Henning C, Grahn E, et al. Is penicillin the appropriate treatment for recurrent tonsillopharyngitis? Results from a comparative randomized blind study of cefuroxime axetil and phenoxymethylpenicillin in children. The Swedish Study Group. Scand J Infect Dis. 1995;27(3):221–228.
  • El-Daher NT, Hijazi SS, Rawashdeh NM, et al. Immediate vs. delayed treatment of group A beta-hemolytic streptococcal pharyngitis with penicillin V. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1991;10(2):126–130.
  • Carapetis JR, Steer AC, Mulholland EK, et al. The global burden of group A streptococcal diseases. Lancet Infect Dis. 2005;5(11):685–694.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.