Treatment of Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in HIV-infected patients: a review

References

• Buchacz K, Lau B, Jing Y, et al. Incidence of AIDS-defining opportunistic infections in a multicohort analysis of HIV-infected persons in the United States and Canada, 2000–2010. J Infect Dis. 2016;214:862–872.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwarcz L, Chen MJ, Vittinghoff E, et al. Declining incidence of AIDS-defining opportunistic illnesses: results from 16 years of population-based AIDS surveillance. AIDS. 2013;27:597–605.
   Google Scholar
• Mocroft A, Sabin CA, Youle M, et al. Changes in AIDS-defining illnesses in a London Clinic, 1987–1998. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1999;21:401–407.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mocroft A, Katlama C, Johnson AM, et al. AIDS across Europe, 1994–98: the EuroSIDA study. Lancet. 2000;356:291–296.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fei MW, Sant CA, Kim EJ, et al. Severity and outcomes of Pneumocystis pneumonia in patients newly diagnosed with HIV infection: an observational cohort study. Scand J Infect Dis. 2009;41:672–678.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin KY, Cheng CY, Li CW, et al. Trends and outcomes of late initiation of combination antiretroviral therapy driven by late presentation among HIV-positive Taiwanese patients in the era of treatment scale-up. PLoS One. 2017;12:e0179870.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lanoy E, Lewden C, Lievre L, et al. How does loss to follow-up influence cohort findings on HIV infection? A joint analysis of the French hospital database on HIV, Mortalite 2000 survey and death certificates. HIV Med. 2009;10:236–245.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lundberg BE, Davidson AJ, Burman WJ. Epidemiology of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in an era of effective prophylaxis: the relative contribution of non-adherence and drug failure. AIDS. 2000;14:2559–2566.
   Google Scholar
• Chow JY, Alsan M, Armstrong W, et al. Risk factors for AIDS-defining illnesses among a population of poorly adherent people living with HIV/AIDS in Atlanta, Georgia. AIDS Care. 2015;27:844–848.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lapadula G, Cozzi-Lepri A, Marchetti G, et al. Risk of clinical progression among patients with immunological nonresponse despite virological suppression after combination antiretroviral treatment. AIDS. 2013;27:769–779.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samji H, Cescon A, Hogg RS, et al. Closing the gap: increases in life expectancy among treated HIV-positive individuals in the United States and Canada. PLoS One. 2013;8:e81355.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee KY, Ho CC, Ji DD, et al. Etiology of pulmonary complications of human immunodeficiency virus-1-infected patients in Taiwan in the era of combination antiretroviral therapy: a prospective observational study. J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2013;46:433–440.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wolff AJ, O’Donnell AE. HIV-related pulmonary infections: a review of the recent literature. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2003;9:210–214.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buchacz K, Baker RK, Moorman AC, et al. Rates of hospitalizations and associated diagnoses in a large multisite cohort of HIV patients in the United States, 1994–2005. AIDS. 2008;22:1345–1354.
   Google Scholar
• Gebo KA, Fleishman JA, Moore RD. Hospitalizations for metabolic conditions, opportunistic infections, and injection drug use among HIV patients: trends between 1996 and 2000 in 12 states. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2005;40:609–616.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith CJ, Ryom L, Weber R, et al. Trends in underlying causes of death in people with HIV from 1999 to 2011 (D:A:D): a multicohort collaboration. Lancet. 2014;384:241–248.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palella FJ Jr., Baker RK, Moorman AC, et al. Mortality in the highly active antiretroviral therapy era: changing causes of death and disease in the HIV outpatient study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2006;43:27–34.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hooshyar D, Hanson DL, Wolfe M, et al. Trends in perimortal conditions and mortality rates among HIV-infected patients. AIDS. 2007;21:2093–2100.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mocroft A, Sterne JA, et al.; Antiretroviral Therapy Cohort C. Variable impact on mortality of AIDS-defining events diagnosed during combination antiretroviral therapy: not all AIDS-defining conditions are created equal. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48:1138–1151.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neuhaus J, Angus B, Kowalska JD, et al. Risk of all-cause mortality associated with nonfatal AIDS and serious non-AIDS events among adults infected with HIV. AIDS. 2010;24:697–706.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas CF Jr., Limper AH. Pneumocystis pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 2004;350:2487–2498.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas CF Jr., Limper AH. Current insights into the biology and pathogenesis of Pneumocystis pneumonia. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2007;5:298–308.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stringer JR, Beard CB, Miller RF, et al. A new name (Pneumocystis jiroveci) for Pneumocystis from humans. Emerg Infect Dis. 2002;8:891–896.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frenkel JK. Pneumocystis pneumonia, an immunodeficiency-dependent disease (IDD): a critical historical overview. J Eukaryot Microbiol. 1999;46:89S–92S.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tasaka S, Tokuda H. Recent advances in the diagnosis of Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in HIV-infected adults. Expert Opin Med Diagn. 2013;7:85–97.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cohen OJ, Stoeckle MY. Extrapulmonary Pneumocystis carinii infections in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arch Intern Med. 1991;151:1205–1214.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calderon EJ, Gutierrez-Rivero S, Durand-Joly I, et al. Pneumocystis infection in humans: diagnosis and treatment. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2010;8:683–701.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vogel MN, Vatlach M, Weissgerber P, et al. HRCT-features of Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia and their evolution before and after treatment in non-HIV immunocompromised patients. Eur J Radiol. 2012;81:1315–1320.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanne JP, Yandow DR, Meyer CA. Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia: high-resolution CT findings in patients with and without HIV infection. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2012;198:W555–61.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooley L, Dendle C, Wolf J, et al. Consensus guidelines for diagnosis, prophylaxis and management of Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in patients with haematological and solid malignancies, 2014. Intern Med J. 2014;44:1350–1363.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reid AB, Chen SC, Worth LJ. Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in non-HIV-infected patients: new risks and diagnostic tools. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2011;24:534–544.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Catherinot E, Lanternier F, Bougnoux ME, et al. Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2010;24:107–138.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang L, Cattamanchi A, Davis JL, et al. HIV-associated Pneumocystis pneumonia. Proc Am Thorac Soc. 2011;8:294–300.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kovacs JA, Ng VL, Masur H, et al. Diagnosis of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia: improved detection in sputum with use of monoclonal antibodies. N Engl J Med. 1988;318:589–593.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krajicek BJ, Limper AH, Thomas CF Jr. Advances in the biology, pathogenesis and identification of Pneumocystis pneumonia. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2008;14:228–234.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alanio A, Hauser PM, Lagrou K, et al. ECIL guidelines for the diagnosis of Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in patients with haematological malignancies and stem cell transplant recipients. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2016;71:2386–2396.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kovacs JA, Gill VJ, Meshnick S, et al. New insights into transmission, diagnosis, and drug treatment of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. JAMA. 2001;286:2450–2460.
   Google Scholar
• Fischer S, Gill VJ, Kovacs J, et al. The use of oral washes to diagnose Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia: a blinded prospective study using a polymerase chain reaction-based detection system. J Infect Dis. 2001;184:1485–1488.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu Y, Ling G, Qiang C, et al. PCR diagnosis of Pneumocystis pneumonia: a bivariate meta-analysis. J Clin Microbiol. 2011;49:4361–4363.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calderon EJ. Epidemiology of Pneumocystis infection in human. Congr Soc Med Mycol. 2008;19:270–275.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morris A, Norris KA. Colonization by Pneumocystis jirovecii and its role in disease. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2012;25:297–317.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alanio A, Desoubeaux G, Sarfati C, et al. Real-time PCR assay-based strategy for differentiation between active Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia and colonization in immunocompromised patients. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2011;17:1531–1537.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fauchier T, Hasseine L, Gari-Toussaint M, et al. Detection of Pneumocystis jirovecii by quantitative PCR to differentiate colonization and pneumonia in immunocompromised HIV-positive and HIV-negative patients. J Clin Microbiol. 2016;54:1487–1495.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsolaki AG, Miller RF, Wakefield AE. Oropharyngeal samples for genotyping and monitoring response to treatment in AIDS patients with Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. J Med Microbiol. 1999;48:897–905.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Esteves F, Cale SS, Badura R, et al. Diagnosis of Pneumocystis pneumonia: evaluation of four serologic biomarkers. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2015;21:379 e1–10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arvanitis M, Anagnostou T, Fuchs BB, et al. Molecular and nonmolecular diagnostic methods for invasive fungal infections. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2014;27:490–526.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volpe F, Ballantine SP, Delves CJ. The multifunctional folic acid synthesis fas gene of Pneumocystis carinii encodes dihydroneopterin aldolase, hydroxymethyldihydropterin pyrophosphokinase and dihydropteroate synthase. Eur J Biochem. 1993;216:449–458.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Masters PA, O’Bryan TA, Zurlo J, et al. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole revisited. Arch Intern Med. 2003;163:402–410.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castro JG, Morrison-Bryant M. Management of Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in HIV infected patients: current options, challenges and future directions. HIV AIDS (Auckl). 2010;2:123–134.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hughes WT, McNabb PC, Makres TD, et al. Efficacy of trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole in the prevention and treatment of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1974;5:289–293.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughes WT, Feldman S, Chaudhary SC, et al. Comparison of pentamidine isethionate and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole in the treatment of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. J Pediatr. 1978;92:285–291.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dennis, T. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole or pentamidine for Pneumocystispneumonia in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Ann Intern Med. 1986;105:629–630.
   Google Scholar
• Klein NC, Duncanson FP, Lenox TH, et al. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole versus pentamidine for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in AIDS patients: results of a large prospective randomized treatment trial. AIDS. 1992;6:301–305.
   Google Scholar
• Sattler FR, Cowan R, Nielsen DM, et al. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole compared with pentamidine for treatment of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. A prospective, noncrossover study. Ann Intern Med. 1988;105:629–630.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wharton JM, Coleman DL, Wofsy CB, et al. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole or pentamidine for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. A prospective randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 1986;105:37–44.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Montgomery AB, Feigal DW Jr., Sattler F, et al. Pentamidine aerosol versus trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole for Pneumocystis carinii in acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995;151:1068–1074.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sattler FR, Frame P, Davis R, et al. Trimetrexate with leucovorin versus trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole for moderate to severe episodes of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with AIDS: a prospective, controlled multicenter investigation of the AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol 029/031. J Infect Dis. 1994;170:165–172.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toma E, Thorne A, Singer J, et al. Clindamycin with primaquine vs. trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole therapy for mild and moderately severe Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with AIDS: a multicenter, double-blind, randomized trial (CTN 004). CTN-PCP study group. Clin Infect Dis. 1998;27:524–530.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Helweg-Larsen J, Benfield T, Atzori C, et al. Clinical efficacy of first- and second-line treatments for HIV-associated Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia: a tri-centre cohort study. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2009;64:1282–1290.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Safrin S, Finkelstein DM, Feinberg J, et al. Comparison of three regimens for treatment of mild to moderate Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with AIDS. A double-blind, randomized, trial of oral trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, dapsone-trimethoprim, and clindamycin-primaquine. ACTG 108 Study Group. Ann Intern Med. 1996;124:792–802.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughes W, Leoung G, Kramer F, et al. Comparison of atovaquone (566C80) with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole to treat Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with AIDS. N Engl J Med. 1993;328:1521–1527.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dohn MN, Weinberg WG, Torres RA, et al. Oral atovaquone compared with intravenous pentamidine for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with AIDS. Atovaquone Study Group. Ann Intern Med. 1994;121:174–180.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim T, Kim SH, Park KH, et al. Clindamycin-primaquine versus pentamidine for the second-line treatment of pneumocystis pneumonia. J Infect Chemother. 2009;15:343–346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruf B, Rohde I, Pohle HD. Efficacy of clindamycin/primaquine versus trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole in primary treatment of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1991;10:207–210.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Medina I, Mills J, Leoung G, et al. Oral therapy for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. A controlled trial of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole versus trimethoprim-dapsone. N Engl J Med. 1990;323:776–782.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang JJ, Huang CH, Liu CE, et al. Multicenter study of trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole-related hepatotoxicity: incidence and associated factors among HIV-infected patients treated for Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia. PLoS One. 2014;9:e106141.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughes WT, Feldman S, Sanyal SK. Treatment of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonitis with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. Can Med Assoc J. 1975;112:47–50.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas M, Rupali P, Woodhouse A, et al. Good outcome with trimethoprim 10 mg/kg/day-sulfamethoxazole 50 mg/kg/day for Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in HIV infected patients. Scand J Infect Dis. 2009;41:862–868.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Creemers-Schild D, Kroon FP, Kuijper EJ, et al. Treatment of Pneumocystis pneumonia with intermediate-dose and step-down to low-dose trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole: lessons from an observational cohort study. Infection. 2016;44:291–299.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klinker H, Langmann P, Zilly M, et al. Drug monitoring during the treatment of AIDS-associated Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. J Clin Pharm Ther. 1998;23:149–154.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joos B, Blaser J, Opravil M, et al. Monitoring of co-trimoxazole concentrations in serum during treatment of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1995;39:2661–2666.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughes WT, LaFon SW, Scott JD, et al. Adverse events associated with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole and atovaquone during the treatment of AIDS-related Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. J Infect Dis. 1995;171:1295–1301.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chin TW, Vandenbroucke A, Fong IW. Pharmacokinetics of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole in critically ill and non-critically ill AIDS patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1995;39:28–33.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silverman M, Kearney P. Diagnosis and treatment of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Arch Dis Child. 1978;53:87–88.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dao BD, Barreto JN, Wolf RC, et al. Serum peak sulfamethoxazole concentrations demonstrate difficulty in achieving a target range: a retrospective cohort study. Curr Ther Res Clin Exp. 2014;76:104–109.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Guidelines for the prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in HIV-infected adults and adolescents: recommendations from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the National Institutes of Health, and the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. 2017. [cited 2017 Apr 24]. Available from: http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/lvguidelines/adult_oi.pdf.)
   Google Scholar
• Maschmeyer G, Helweg-Larsen J, Pagano L, et al. ECIL guidelines for treatment of Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in non-HIV-infected haematology patients. J Antimicrob Chemoth. 2016;71:2405–2413.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang L, Crothers K, Atzori C, et al. Dihydropteroate synthase gene mutations in Pneumocystis and sulfa resistance. Emerg Infect Dis. 2004;10:1721–1728.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Queener SF, Cody V, Pace J, et al. Trimethoprim resistance of dihydrofolate reductase variants from clinical isolates of Pneumocystis jirovecii. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2013;57:4990–4998.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kazanjian P, Armstrong W, Hossler PA, et al. Pneumocystis carinii mutations are associated with duration of sulfa or sulfone prophylaxis exposure in AIDS patients. J Infect Dis. 2000;182:551–557.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alvarez-Martinez MJ, Moreno A, Miro JM, et al. Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in Spanish HIV-infected patients in the combined antiretroviral therapy era: prevalence of dihydropteroate synthase mutations and prognostic factors of mortality. Diagn Microbiol Infec Dis. 2008;62:34–43.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Navin TR, Beard CB, Huang L, et al. Effect of mutations in Pneumocystis carinii dihydropteroate synthase gene on outcome of P carinii pneumonia in patients with HIV-1: a prospective study. Lancet. 2001;358:545–549.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ponce CA, Chabe M, George C, et al. High prevalence of Pneumocystis jirovecii dihydropteroate synthase gene mutations in patients with a first episode of pneumocystis pneumonia in Santiago, Chile, and clinical response to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2017;61(2):e01290-16.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Helweg-Larsen J, Benfield TL, Eugen-Olsen J, et al. Effects of mutations in Pneumocystis carinii dihydropteroate synthase gene on outcome of AIDS-associated P. carinii pneumonia. Lancet. 1999;354:1347–1351.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Visconti E, Ortona E, Mencarini P, et al. Mutations in dihydropteroate synthase gene of Pneumocystis carinii in HIV patients with Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2001;18:547–551.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ma L, Kovacs JA, Cargnel A, et al. Mutations in the dihydropteroate synthase gene of human-derived Pneumocystis carinii isolates from Italy are infrequent but correlate with prior sulfa prophylaxis. J Infect Dis. 2002;185:1530–1532.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Takahashi T, Hosoya N, Endo T, et al. Relationship between mutations in dihydropteroate synthase of Pneumocystis carinii f. sp. hominis isolates in Japan and resistance to sulfonamide therapy. J Clin Microbiol. 2000;38:3161–3164.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoon C, Subramanian A, Chi A, et al. Dihydropteroate synthase mutations in Pneumocystis pneumonia: impact of applying different definitions of prophylaxis, mortality endpoints and mutant in a single cohort. Med Mycol. 2013;51:568–575.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bozzette SA, Sattler FR, Chiu J, et al. A controlled trial of early adjunctive treatment with corticosteroids for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. California Collaborative Treatment Group. N Engl J Med. 1990;323:1451–1457. .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang ZB, Eden E. Effect of corticosteroids on IL1 beta and TNF alpha release by alveolar macrophages from patients with AIDS and Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Chest. 1993;104:751–755.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gagnon S, Boota AM, Fischl MA, et al. Corticosteroids as adjunctive therapy for severe Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome - a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. N Engl J Med. 1990;323:1444–1450.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ewald H, Raatz H, Boscacci R, et al. Adjunctive corticosteroids for Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia in patients with HIV infection. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;(4):CD006150.
   Google Scholar
• Wang LI, Liang H, Ye LI, et al. Adjunctive corticosteroids for the treatment of Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia in patients with HIV: a meta-analysis. Exp Ther Med. 2016;11:683–687.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pneumonia NIoH-UoCEPfCaATfP; The National Institutes of Health-University of California Expert Panel for Corticosteroids as Adjunctive Therapy for Pneumocystis Pneumonia. Consensus statement on the use of corticosteroids as adjunctive therapy for pneumocystis pneumonia in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1990;323:1500–1504.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lemiale V, Debrumetz A, Delannoy A, et al. Adjunctive steroid in HIV-negative patients with severe Pneumocystis pneumonia. Respir Res. 2013;14:87. doi: 10.1186/1465-9921-14-87.
   Google Scholar
• Fujikura Y, Manabe T, Kawana A, et al. Adjunctive corticosteroids for Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in non-HIV-infected patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Arch Bronconeumol. 2017;53:55–61.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaplan JE, Benson C, Holmes KK, et al. Guidelines for prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in HIV-infected adults and adolescents: recommendations from CDC, the National Institutes of Health, and the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. MMWR Recommendations and reports: Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report Recommendations and Reports 2009;58:1–207; quiz CE1–4.
   Google Scholar
• Conte JE Jr., Hollander H, Golden JA. Inhaled or reduced-dose intravenous pentamidine for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. A pilot study. Ann Intern Med. 1987;107:495–498.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conte JE Jr., Chernoff D, Feigal DW Jr., et al. Intravenous or inhaled pentamidine for treating Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in AIDS. A randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 1990;113:203–209.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Montgomery AB, Debs RJ, Luce JM, et al. Aerosolized pentamidine as second line therapy in patients with AIDS and Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Chest. 1989;95:747–750.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fulton B, Wagstaff AJ, McTavish D. Trimetrexate. A review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic potential in the treatment of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Drugs. 1995;49:563–576.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allegra CJ, Chabner BA, Tuazon CU, et al. Trimetrexate for the treatment of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1987;317:978–985.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paulson YJ, Gilman TM, Heseltine PN, et al. Eflornithine treatment of refractory Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Chest. 1992;101:67–74.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith D, Davies S, Nelson M, et al. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia treated with eflornithine in AIDS patients resistant to conventional therapy. AIDS. 1990;4:1019–1021.
   Google Scholar
• Nickel P, Schurmann M, Albrecht H, et al. Clindamycin-primaquine for Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia in renal transplant patients. Infection. 2014;42:981–989.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noskin GA, Murphy RL, Black JR, et al. Salvage therapy with clindamycin/primaquine for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis. 1992;14:183–188.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smego RA Jr., Nagar S, Maloba B, et al. A meta-analysis of salvage therapy for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Arch Intern Med. 2001;161:1529–1533.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Freeman CD, Klutman NE, Lamp KC, et al. Relative bioavailability of atovaquone suspension when administered with an enteral nutrition supplement. Ann Pharmacother. 1998;32:1004–1007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cushion MT, Linke MJ, Ashbaugh A, et al. Echinocandin treatment of pneumocystis pneumonia in rodent models depletes cysts leaving trophic burdens that cannot transmit the infection. PLoS One. 2010;5:e8524.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sun P, Tong Z. Efficacy of caspofungin, a 1,3-beta-D-glucan synthase inhibitor, on Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in rats. Med Mycology. 2014;52:798–803.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lobo ML, Esteves F, De Sousa B, et al. Therapeutic potential of caspofungin combined with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole for pneumocystis pneumonia: a pilot study in mice. PLoS One. 2013;8:e70619.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Annaloro C, Della Volpe A, Usardi P, et al. Caspofungin treatment of Pneumocystis pneumonia during conditioning for bone marrow transplantation. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2006;25:52–54.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beltz K, Kramm CM, Laws HJ, et al. Combined trimethoprim and caspofungin treatment for severe Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia in a five year old boy with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Klin Padiatr. 2006;218:177–179.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamboj M, Weinstock D, Sepkowitz KA. Progression of Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia in patients receiving echinocandin therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;43:e92–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Utili R, Durante-Mangoni E, Basilico C, et al. Efficacy of caspofungin addition to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole treatment for severe pneumocystis pneumonia in solid organ transplant recipients. Transplantation. 2007;84:685–688.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hof H, Schnulle P. Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia in a patient with Wegener’s granulomatosis treated efficiently with caspofungin. Mycoses. 2008;51(Suppl 1):65–67.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ceballos ME, Ortega M, Andresen M, et al. Successful treatment with echinocandin in an HIV-infected individual failing first-line therapy for Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia. AIDS. 2011;25:2192–2193.
   Google Scholar
• Yao Z, Hua Z, Jun X, et al. Lack of response in severe pneumocystis pneumonia to combined caspofungin and clindamycin treatment: a case report. Chin Med Sci J. 2011;26:246–248.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kim T, Hong HL, Lee YM, et al. Is caspofungin really an effective treatment for Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in immunocompromised patients without human immunodeficiency virus infection? Experiences at a single center and a literature review. Scand J Infect Dis. 2013;45:484–488.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tu GW, Ju MJ, Xu M, et al. Combination of caspofungin and low-dose trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole for the treatment of severe Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in renal transplant recipients. Nephrology (Carlton, Vic). 2013;18:736–742.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li H, Huang H, He H. Successful treatment of severe Pneumocystis pneumonia in an immunosuppressed patient using caspofungin combined with clindamycin: a case report and literature review. BMC Pulm Med. 2016;16:144.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jiang XQ, Fang L, Mei XD, et al. Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia in patients with non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma after rituximab-containing regimen: two cases of report and literature review. J Thorac Dis. 2013;5:E162–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee WS, Hsueh PR, Hsieh TC, et al. Caspofungin salvage therapy in Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia. J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2016 Mar 28. pii: S1684-1182(16)30029-9. doi: 10.1016/j.jmii.2016.03.008. [Epub ahead of print].
   Google Scholar
• Armstrong-James D, Stebbing J, John L, et al. A trial of caspofungin salvage treatment in PCP pneumonia. Thorax. 2011;66:537–538.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sun HY, Cheng A, Huang SH, et al. Anidulafungin for patients with Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia, an alternative option? Poster no. M-1297. Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; San Diego; 2015.
   Google Scholar
• Maertens J, Cesaro S, Maschmeyer G, et al. ECIL guidelines for preventing Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in patients with haematological malignancies and stem cell transplant recipients. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2016;71:2397–2404.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Practice ASTIDCo, Martin SI, Fishman JA. Pneumocystis pneumonia in solid organ transplantation. Am J Transplant. 2013;13(Suppl 4):272–279.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phair J, Munoz A, Detels R, et al. The risk of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia among men infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1990;322:161–165.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaplan JE, Hanson DL, Navin TR, et al. Risk factors for primary Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in human immunodeficiency virus-infected adolescents and adults in the United States: reassessment of indications for chemoprophylaxis. J Infect Dis. 1998;178:1126–1132.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stansell JD, Osmond DH, Charlebois E, et al. Predictors of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in HIV-infected persons. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997;155:60–66.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lopez Bernaldo de Quiros JC, Miro JM, Pena JM, et al.; Grupo de Estudio del SIDA 04/98. A randomized trial of the discontinuation of primary and secondary prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia after highly active antiretroviral therapy in patients with HIV infection. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:159–167.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mocroft A, Reiss P, Kirk O, et al.; Opportunistic Infections Project Team of the Collaboration of Observational HIVERiE. Is it safe to discontinue primary Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia prophylaxis in patients with virologically suppressed HIV infection and a CD4 cell count <200 cells/microL? Clin Infect Dis. 2010;51:611–619.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sidhu VK, Foisy MM, Hughes CA. Discontinuing Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia prophylaxis in HIV-infected patients with a CD4 cell count <200 cells/mm3. Ann Pharmacother. 2015;49:1343–1348.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costiniuk CT, Fergusson DA, Doucette S, et al. Discontinuation of Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia prophylaxis with CD4 count <200 cells/microL and virologic suppression: a systematic review. PLoS One. 2011;6:e28570.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zellweger C, Opravil M, Bernasconi E, et al. Long-term safety of discontinuation of secondary prophylaxis against Pneumocystis pneumonia: prospective multicentre study. AIDS. 2004;18:2047–2053.
   Google Scholar
• Guidelines for the prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in HIV-infected adults and adolescents: recommendations from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the National Institutes of Health, and the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. 2017. [cited 2017 Apr 24]. Available at http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/lvguidelines/adult_oi.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Ioannidis JPA, Capelleri JC, Skolnik PR, et al. A meta-analysis of the relative efficacy and toxicity of Pneumocystis carinii prophylactic regimens. Arch Intern Med. 1996;156:177–188.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schneider MM, Nielsen TL, Nelsing S, et al. Efficacy and toxicity of two doses of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole as primary prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with human immunodeficiency virus. Dutch AIDS Treatment Group. J Infect Dis. 1995;171:1632–1636.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El-Sadr WM, Luskin-Hawk R, Yurik TM, et al. A randomized trial of daily and thrice-weekly trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole for the prevention of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in human immunodeficiency virus-infected persons. Terry Beirn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS (CPCRA). Clin Infect Dis. 1999;29:775–783.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ribera E, Fernandez-Sola A, Juste C, et al. Comparison of high and low doses of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole for primary prevention of toxoplasmic encephalitis in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. Clin Infect Dis. 1999;29:1461–1466.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughes WT. Use of dapsone in the prevention and treatment of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia: a review. Clin Infect Dis. 1998;27:191–204.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El-Sadr WM, Murphy RL, Yurik RM, et al. Atovaquone compared with dapsone for the prevention of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with HIV infection who cannot tolerate trimethoprim, sulfonamides, or both. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:1889–1895.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan C, Montaner J, Lefebvre EA, et al. Atovaquone suspension compared with aerosolized pentamidine for prevention of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in human immunodeficiency virus-infected subjects intolerant of trimethoprim or sulfonamides. J Infect Dis. 1999;180:369–376.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schneider MM, Hoepelman AI, Eeftinck Schattenkerk JK, et al. A controlled trial of aerosolized pentamidine or trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole as primary prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. The Dutch AIDS Treatment Group. N Engl J Med. 1992;327:1836–1841.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Podzamczer D, Salazar A, Jimenez J, et al. Intermittent trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole compared with dapsone-pyrimethamine for the simultaneous primary prophylaxis of Pneumocystis pneumonia and toxoplasmosis in patients infected with HIV. Ann Intern Med. 1995;122:755–761.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coker RJ, Nieman R, Mcbride M, et al. Cotrimoxazole versus dapsone-pyrimethamine for prevention of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Lancet. 1992;340:1099.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischl MA, Dickinson GM, Lavoie L. Safety and efficacy of sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim chemoprophylaxis for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in AIDS. JAMA-J Am Med Assoc. 1988;259:1185–1189.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stein DS, Stevens RC, Terry D, et al. Use of low-dose trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole thrice weekly for primary and secondary prophylaxis of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1991;35:1705–1709.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kemper CA, Tucker RM, Lang OS, et al. Low-dose dapsone prophylaxis of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in AIDS and AIDS-related complex. AIDS. 1990;4:1145–1148.
   Google Scholar
• Cruciani M, Bertazzoni Minelli E, Mirandola M, et al. Twice-weekly dapsone for primary prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in HIV-1 infection: efficacy, safety and pharmacokinetic data. Clin Microbiol Infect. 1996;2:30–35.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Blum RN, Miller LA, Gaggini LC, et al. Comparative trial of dapsone versus trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole for primary prophylaxis of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1992;5:341–347.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Podzamczer D, Santin M, Jimenez J, et al. Thrice-weekly cotrimoxazole is better than weekly dapsone-pyrimethamine for the primary prevention of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in HIV-infected patients. AIDS. 1993;7:501–506.
   Google Scholar
• Slavin MA, Hoy JF, Stewart K, et al. Oral dapsone versus nebulized pentamidine for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia prophylaxis: an open randomized prospective trial to assess efficacy and haematological toxicity. AIDS. 1992;6:1169–1174.
   Google Scholar
• Torres RA, Barr M, Thorn M, et al. Randomized trial of dapsone and aerosolized pentamidine for the prophylaxis of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia and toxoplasmic encephalitis. Am J Med. 1993;95:573–583.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salmon-Ceron D, Fontbonne A, Saba J, et al. Lower survival in AIDS patients receiving dapsone compared with aerosolized pentamidine for secondary prophylaxis of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Study Group. J Infect Dis. 1995;172:656–664.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Girard PM, Landman R, Gaudebout C, et al. Dapsone-pyrimethamine compared with aerosolized pentamidine as primary prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia and toxoplasmosis in HIV infection. The PRIO Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1993;328:1514–1520.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Opravil M, Hirschel B, Lazzarin A, et al. Once-weekly administration of dapsone/pyrimethamine vs. aerosolized pentamidine as combined prophylaxis for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia and toxoplasmic encephalitis in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. Clin Infect Dis. 1995;20:531–541.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pretet S, Salmon D, Rousseau F, et al. Long-term results of monthly inhaled pentamidine as primary prophylaxis of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in HIV-infected patients. Am J Med. 1993;94:35–40.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Konishi M, Yoshimoto E, Takahashi K, et al. Aerosolized pentamidine prophylaxis against AIDS-related Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia and its short- and long-term effects on pulmonary function in the Japanese. J Infect Chemother. 2003;9:178–182.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jensen BN, Nielsen TL, Backer V, et al. Aerosolized pentamidine for primary prophylaxis of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia: a controlled, randomized trial. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1993;6:472–477.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lidman C, Tynell E, Berglund O, et al. Aerosolized pentamidine versus i.v. pentamidine for secondary prophylaxis of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Infection. 1993;21:146–149.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• May T, Beuscart C, Reynes J, et al. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole versus aerosolized pentamidine for primary prophylaxis of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia: a prospective, randomized, controlled clinical trial. LFPMI study group. Ligue Francaise de Prevention des Maladies Infectieuses. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1994;7:457–462.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hardy WD, Feinberg J, Finkelstein DM, et al. A controlled trial of trimethoprim sulfamethoxazole or aerosolized pentamidine for secondary prophylaxis of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome - AIDS Clinical-Trials Group Protocol-021. N Engl J Med. 1992;327:1842–1848.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mallolas J, Zamora L, Gatell JM, et al. Primary prophylaxis for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia: a randomized trial comparing cotrimoxazole, aerosolized pentamidine and dapsone plus pyrimethamine. AIDS. 1993;7:59–64.
   Google Scholar
• Antinori A, Murri R, Ammassari A, et al. Aerosolized pentamidine, cotrimoxazole and dapsone-pyrimethamine for primary prophylaxis of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia and toxoplasmic encephalitis. AIDS. 1995;9:1343–1350.
   Google Scholar
• Bozzette SA, Finkelstein DM, Spector SA, et al. A randomized trial of 3 antipneumocystis agents in patients with advanced human-immunodeficiency-virus infection. N Engl J Med. 1995;332:693–699.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warnock AC, Rimland D. Comparison of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, dapsone, and pentamidine in the prophylaxis of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Pharmacotherapy. 1996;16:1030–1038.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cushion MT, Ashbaugh A, Lynch K, et al. Prevention of Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) by the novel echinocandin, Cd101. Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; Boston; 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Nazir HF, Elshinawy M, AlRawas A, et al. Efficacy and safety of dapsone versus trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazol for Pneumocystis jiroveci prophylaxis in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia with a background of ethnic neutropenia. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2017;39:203–208.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wuerz TC, Bow EJ, Seftel MD. Potential consequences of essential drug shortages in Canada: brain abscess due to Nocardia farcinica associated with dapsone prophylaxis for Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia. Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol. 2013;24:159–161.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vyas PM, Roychowdhury S, Khan FD, et al. Enzyme-mediated protein haptenation of dapsone and sulfamethoxazole in human keratinocytes: I. Expression and role of cytochromes P450. J Pharm Exp Ther. 2006;319:488–496.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berg PA, Daniel PT. Co-trimoxazole-induced hepatic injury–an analysis of cases with hypersensitivity-like reactions. Infection. 1987;15(Suppl 5):S259–S264.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Smith CL, Brown I, Torraca BM. Acetylator status and tolerance of high-dose trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole therapy among patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis. 1997;25:1477–1478.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee BL, Delahunty T, Safrin S. The hydroxylamine of sulfamethoxazole and adverse reactions in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1994;56:184–189.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwarz UI. Clinical relevance of genetic polymorphisms in the human CYP2C9 gene. Eur J Clin Invest. 2003;33(Suppl 2):23–30.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyce TG, Smidt RG, Edmonson MB. Fever as an adverse reaction to oral trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole therapy. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1992;11:772–773.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly JW, Dooley DP, Lattuada CP, et al. A severe, unusual reaction to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis. 1992;14:1034–1039.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalanadhabhatta V, Muppidi D, Sahni H, et al. Successful oral desensitization to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole in acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 1996;77:394–400.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Absar N, Daneshvar H, Beall G. Desensitization to trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole in HIV-infected patients. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1994;93:1001–1005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitsuyasu R, Groopman J, Volberding P. Cutaneous reaction to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole in patients with AIDS and Kaposi’s sarcoma. N Engl J Med. 1983;308:1535–1536.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• George JN, Aster RH. Drug-induced thrombocytopenia: pathogenesis, evaluation, and management. Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program. 2009;1:153–158.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Safrin S, Lee BL, Sande MA. Adjunctive folinic acid with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in AIDS patients is associated with an increased risk of therapeutic failure and death. J Infect Dis. 1994;170:912–917.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawson DH, Paice BJ. Adverse reactions to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. Rev Infect Dis. 1982;4:429–433.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hellden A, Bergman U, Engstrom Hellgren K, et al. Fluconazole-induced intoxication with phenytoin in a patient with ultra-high activity of CYP2C9. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2010;66:791–795.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitra AK, Thummel KE, Kalhorn TF, et al. Inhibition of sulfamethoxazole hydroxylamine formation by fluconazole in human liver microsomes and healthy volunteers. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1996;59:332–340.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartels RH, van der Spek JA, Oosten HR. Acute pancreatitis due to sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim. South Med J. 1992;85:1006–1007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Takaichi K, Takemoto F, Ubara Y, et al. Analysis of factors causing hyperkalemia. Intern Med. 2007;46:823–829.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perazella MA, Mahnensmith RL. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole: hyperkalemia is an important complication regardless of dose. Clin Nephrol. 1996;46:187–192.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenberg S, Reiser IW, Chou SY, et al. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole induces reversible hyperkalemia. Ann Intern Med. 1993;119:291–295.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahn YH, Goldman JM. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole and hyponatremia. Ann Intern Med. 1985;103:161–162.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fraser TN, Avellaneda AA, Graviss EA, et al. Acute kidney injury associated with trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2012;67:1271–1277.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee KY, Huang CH, Tang HJ, et al. Acute psychosis related to use of trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole in the treatment of HIV-infected patients with Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia: a multicentre, retrospective study. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2012;67:2749–2754.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patterson RG, Couchenour RL. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole-induced tremor in an immunocompetent patients. Pharmacotherapy. 1999;19:1456–1458.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slavik RS, Rybak MJ, Lerner SA. Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole-induced tremor in a patient with AIDS. Ann Pharmacother. 1998;32:189–192.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agrawal S, Agarwalla A. Dapsone hypersensitivity syndrome: a clinico-epidemiological review. J Dermatol. 2005;32:883–889.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tingle MD, Coleman MD, Park BK. An investigation of the role of metabolism in dapsone-induced methaemoglobinaemia using a two compartment in vitro test system. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1990;30:829–838.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ashurst JV, Wasson MN, Hauger W, et al. Pathophysiologic mechanisms, diagnosis, and management of dapsone-induced methemoglobinemia. J Am Osteopath Assoc. 2010;110:16–20.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Coleman MD, Coleman NA. Drug-induced methaemoglobinaemia. Treatment issues. Drug Saf. 1996;14:394–405.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wright RO, Lewander WJ, Woolf AD. Methemoglobinemia: etiology, pharmacology, and clinical management. Ann Emerg Med. 1999;34:646–656.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cacoub P, Musette P, Descamps V, et al. The DRESS syndrome: a literature review. Am J Med. 2011;124:588–597.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang N, Parimi L, Liu H, et al. A review on dapsone hypersensitivity syndrome among Chinese patients with an emphasis on preventing adverse drug reactions with genetic testing. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2017.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenberg DM, McCarthy W, Slavinsky J, et al. Atovaquone suspension for treatment of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in HIV-infected patients. AIDS. 2001;15:211–214.
   Google Scholar
• Bolchoz LJ, Budinsky RA, McMillan DC, et al. Primaquine-induced hemolytic anemia: formation and hemotoxicity of the arylhydroxylamine metabolite 6-methoxy-8-hydroxylaminoquinoline. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2001;297:509–515.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Youngster I, Arcavi L, Schechmaster R, et al. Medications and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency: an evidence-based review. Drug Saf. 2010;33:713–726.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fryauff DJ, Baird JK, Basri H, et al. Randomised placebo-controlled trial of primaquine for prophylaxis of falciparum and vivax malaria. Lancet. 1995;346:1190–1193.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clayman CB, Arnold J, Hockwald RS, et al. Toxicity of primaquine in Caucasians. J Am Med Assoc. 1952;149:1563–1568.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moole H, Ahmed Z, Saxena N, et al. Oral clindamycin causing acute cholestatic hepatitis without ductopenia: a brief review of idiosyncratic drug-induced liver injury and a case report. J Community Hosp Intern Med Perspect. 2015;5:28746.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Navarro VJ, Senior JR. Drug-related hepatotoxicity. N Engl J Med. 2006;354:731–739.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smeets TJ, Jessurun N, Harmark L, et al. Clindamycin-induced acute generalised exanthematous pustulosis: five cases and a review of the literature. Neth J Med. 2016;74:421–428.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller Quidley A, Bookstaver PB, Gainey AB, et al. Fatal clindamycin-induced drug rash with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms (DRESS) syndrome. Pharmacotherapy. 2012;32:e387–92.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang Y, Chen S, Yang F, et al. HLA-B*51:01 is strongly associated with clindamycin-related cutaneous adverse drug reactions. Pharmacogenomics J. 2016 Aug 16. doi: 10.1038/tpj.2016.61. [Epub ahead of print].
   Google Scholar
• Andres E, Maloisel F. Groupe d’Etude des agranulocytoses medicamenteuses des Hopitaux Universitaires de S. [Idiosyncratic drug-induced agranulocytosis]. Rev Med Interne. 2006;27:209–214.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andersohn F, Konzen C, Garbe E. Systematic review: agranulocytosis induced by nonchemotherapy drugs. Ann Intern Med. 2007;146:657–665.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reese JA, Li X, Hauben M, et al. Identifying drugs that cause acute thrombocytopenia: an analysis using 3 distinct methods. Blood. 2010;116:2127–2133.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morales MP, Carvallo AP, Espinosa KA, et al. A young man with myelosuppression caused by clindamycin: a case report. J Med Case Rep. 2014;8:7.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wan H, Hu Z, Wang J, et al. Clindamycin-induced kidney diseases: a retrospective analysis of 50 patients. Intern Med. 2016;55:1433–1437.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wistrom J, Norrby SR, Myhre EB, et al. Frequency of antibiotic-associated diarrhoea in 2462 antibiotic-treated hospitalized patients: a prospective study. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2001;47:43–50.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartlett JG. Clostridium difficile: clinical considerations. Rev Infect Dis. 1990;12(Suppl 2):S243–51.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Anand A, Bashey B, Mir T, et al. Epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and outcome of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. Am J Gastroenterol. 1994;89:519–523.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tedesco FJ, Barton RW, Alpers DH. Clindamycin-associated colitis. A prospective study. Ann Intern Med. 1974;81:429–433.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kyne L, Hamel MB, Polavaram R, et al. Health care costs and mortality associated with nosocomial diarrhea due to Clostridium difficile. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;34:346–353.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen SH, Gerding DN, Johnson S, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for Clostridium difficile infection in adults: 2010 update by the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA) and the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA). Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2010;31:431–455.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sands M, Kron MA, Brown RB. Pentamidine: a review. Rev Infect Dis. 1985;7:625–634.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bolognia JL. Cutaneous ulceration: an unusual complication of intravenous pentamidine therapy. Dermatologica. 1991;183:221–224.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Briceland LL, Bailie GR. Pentamidine-associated nephrotoxicity and hyperkalemia in patients with AIDS. DICP. 1991;25:1171–1174.
   Google Scholar
• Lachaal M, Venuto RC. Nephrotoxicity and hyperkalemia in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome treated with pentamidine. Am J Med. 1989;87:260–263.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleyman TR, Roberts C, Ling BN. A mechanism for pentamidine-induced hyperkalemia: inhibition of distal nephron sodium transport. Ann Intern Med. 1995;122:103–106.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Assan R, Perronne C, Assan D, et al. Pentamidine-induced derangements of glucose homeostasis. Determinant roles of renal failure and drug accumulation. A study of 128 patients. Diabetes Care. 1995;18:47–55.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murphey SA, Josephs AS. Acute pancreatitis associated with pentamidine therapy. Arch Intern Med. 1981;141:56–58.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Harrison KS, Laube BL. Bronchodilator pretreatment improves aerosol deposition uniformity in HIV-positive patients who cough while inhaling aerosolized pentamidine. Chest. 1994;106:421–426.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stone EA, Fung HB, Kirschenbaum HL. Caspofungin: an echinocandin antifungal agent. Clin Ther. 2002;24:351–77.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Betts RF, Nucci M, Talwar D, et al. A multicenter, double-blind trial of a high-dose caspofungin treatment regimen versus a standard caspofungin treatment regimen for adult patients with invasive candidiasis. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48:1676–1684.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen SC, Slavin MA, Sorrell TC. Echinocandin antifungal drugs in fungal infections: a comparison. Drugs. 2011;71:11–41.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zolopa A, Andersen J, Powderly W, et al. Early antiretroviral therapy reduces AIDS progression/death in individuals with acute opportunistic infections: a multicenter randomized strategy trial. PLoS One. 2009;4:e5575.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thoden J, Potthoff A, Bogner JR, et al. Therapy and prophylaxis of opportunistic infections in HIV-infected patients: a guideline by the German and Austrian AIDS societies (DAIG/OAG) (AWMF 055/066). Infection. 2013;41(Suppl 2):S91–115.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller RF, Allen E, Copas A, et al. Improved survival for HIV infected patients with severe Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia is independent of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Thorax. 2006;61:716–721.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haddow LJ, Colebunders R, Meintjes G, et al. Cryptococcal immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in HIV-1-infected individuals: proposed clinical case definitions. Lancet Infect Dis. 2010;10:791–802.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meintjes G, Lawn SD, Scano F, et al. Tuberculosis-associated immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome: case definitions for use in resource-limited settings. Lancet Infect Dis. 2008;8:516–523.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grant PM, Komarow L, Andersen J, et al. Risk factor analyses for immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in a randomized study of early vs. deferred ART during an opportunistic infection. PLoS One. 2010;5:e11416.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jagannathan P, Davis E, Jacobson M, et al. Life-threatening immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome after Pneumocystis pneumonia: a cautionary case series. AIDS. 2009;23:1794–1796.
   Google Scholar
• Kolditz M, Halank M, Bandt D, et al. Early recurrence of Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia in two HIV-infected patients: linking infection relapse and immune reconstitution syndrome. Respirology. 2009;14:910–912.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pepper DJ, Rebe K, Morroni C, et al. Clinical deterioration during antitubercular treatment at a district hospital in South Africa: the importance of drug resistance and AIDS defining illnesses. PLoS One. 2009;4:e4520.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Avino LJ, Naylor SM, Roecker AM. Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in the non-HIV-infected population. Ann Pharmacother. 2016;50:673–679.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bienvenu AL, Traore K, Plekhanova I, et al. Pneumocystis pneumonia suspected cases in 604 non-HIV and HIV patients. Int J Infect Dis. 2016;46:11–17.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar