445
Views
24
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Management and prevention of drug resistant infections in burn patients

, , &
Pages 607-619 | Received 07 May 2019, Accepted 23 Jul 2019, Published online: 04 Aug 2019

References

  • Branski LK, Al-Mousawi A, Rivero H, et al. Emerging Infections in Burns. Surg Infect (Larchmt). 2009;10(5):389–397.
  • Church D, Elsayed S, Reid O, et al. Burn wound infections. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2006;19:403–434.
  • Barrow RE, Spies M, Barrow LN, et al. Influence of demographics and inhalation injury on burn mortality in children. Burns. 2004;30:72–77.
  • Fitzwater J, Purdue GF, Hunt JL, et al. The risk factors and time course of sepsis and organ dysfunction after burn trauma. J Trauma. 2003;54:959–966.
  • Neely AN, Fowler LA, Kagan RJ, et al. Procalcitonin in pediatric burn patients: an early indicator of sepsis? J Burn Care Rehabil. 2004;25:76–80.
  • Heredia-Rodríguez M, Bustamante-Munguira J, Lorenzo M, et al. Procalcitonin and white blood cells, combined predictors of infection in cardiac surgery patients. J Surg Res. 2017;212:187–194.
  • Stanojcic M, Vinaik R, Jeschke MG. Status and challenges of predicting and diagnosing sepsis in burn patients. Surg Infec. 2018;19(2):168–175.
  • Mann-Salinas EA, Baun MM, Meininger JC, et al. Novel predictors of sepsis outperform the American burn association sepsis criteria in the burn intensive care unit patient. J Burn Care Res. 2013;34(1):31–43.
  • Norbury W, Herndon DN, Tanksley J, et al. Infection in burns. Surg Infect (Larchmt). 2016;17(2):250–255.
  • Powers JH. Development of drugs for antimicrobial-resistant pathogens. Curr Opin Infec Dis. 2003;16(6):547–551.
  • van Langeveld I, Gagnon RC, Conrad PF, et al. Multiple-drug resistance in burn patients: a retrospective study on the impact of antibiotic resistance on survival and length of stay. Burn Care Res. 2017;38(2):99–105.
  • Kargozar S, Mozafari M, Hamzehlou S, et al. Using bioactive glasses in the management of burns. Front Bioeng Biotechnol. 2019;7:62.
  • Alexander JW. Mechanism of immunologic suppression in burn injury. J Trauma. 1990;30:S70–5.
  • Griswold JA. White blood cell response to burn injury. Semin Nephrol. 1993;13:409–415.
  • Heideman M, Bengtsson A. The immunologic response to thermal injury. World J Surg. 1992;16:53–56.
  • Lederer JA, Rodrick ML, Mannick JA. The effects of injury on the adaptive immune response. Shock. 1999;11:153–159.
  • Barret JP, Herndon DN. Effects of burn wound excision on bacterial colonization and invasion. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2003;111:744–750.
  • Erol S, Altoparlak U, Akcay MN, et al. Changes of microbial flora and wound colonization in burned patients. Burns. 2004;30:357–361.
  • Manson WL, Klasen HJ, Sauer EW, et al. Selective intestinal decontamination for prevention of wound colonization in severely burned patients: a retrospective analysis. Burns. 1992;18:98–102.
  • Manson WL, Pernot PC, Fidler V, et al. Colonization of burns and the duration of hospital stay of severely burned patients. J Hosp Infect. 1992;22:55–63.
  • Nasser S, Mabrouk A, Maher A. Colonization of burn wounds in Ain Shams University burn unit. Burns. 2003;29:229–233.
  • Wysocki AB. Evaluating and managing open skin wounds: colonization versus infection. AACN Clin Issues. 2002;13:382–397.
  • Pruitt BA Jr, McManus AT, Kim SH, et al. Burn wound infections: current status. World J Surg. 1998;22:135.
  • Altoparlak U, Erol S, Akcay MN, et al. The time-related changes of antimicrobial resistance patterns and predominant bacterial profiles of burn wounds and body flora of burned patients. Burns. 2004;30:660.
  • Schultz L, Walker SA, Elligsen M, et al. Identification of predictors of early infection in acute burn patients. Burns. 2013;39:1355.
  • Öncül O, Öksüz S, Acar A, et al. Nosocomial infection characteristics in a burn intensive care unit: analysis of an eleven-year active surveillance. Burns. 2014;40:835.
  • Taneja N, Chari P, Singh M, et al. Evolution of bacterial flora in burn wounds: key role of environmental disinfection in control of infection. Int J Burns Trauma. 2013;3(2):102–107.
  • Elson G, Dunn-Siegrist I, Daubeuf B, et al. Contribution of Toll-like receptors to the innate immune response to Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. Blood. 2007;109(4):1574–1583.
  • Schaub B, Abdelouahab B, Gibbons FK, et al. TLR2 and TLR4 stimulation differentially induce cytokine secretion in human neonatal, adult, and murine mononuclear cells. J Interferon Cytokine Res. 2004;24(9):543–552.
  • Bang RL, Gang RK, Sanyal SC, et al. Beta-haemolytic Streptococcus infection in burns. Burns. 1999;25:242–246.
  • Lesseva M, Girgitzova BP, Bojadjiev C. Beta-haemolytic streptococcal infections in burned patients. Burns. 1994;20:422–425.
  • Foster TJ. The Staphylococcus aureus “superbug.”. J Clin Investig. 2004;114:1693–1696.
  • Otto M. Staphylococcus aureus toxins. Curr Opin Microbiol. 2014;32–37.
  • Prasanna M, Thomas C. A profile of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection in the burn center of the Sultanate of Oman. Burns. 1998;24:631–636.
  • Guggenheim M, Zbinden R, Handschin AE, et al. Changes in bacterial isolates from burn wounds and their antibiograms: a 20-year study (1986–2005). Burns. 2009;35:553–560.
  • Hodle AE, Richter KP, Thompson RM. Infection control practices in U.S. burn units. J Burn Care Res. 2006;27:142–151.
  • Williams FN, Herndon DN, Hawkins HK, et al. The leading causes of death after burn injury in a single pediatric burn center. Crit Care. 2009;13:R183.
  • Lachiewicz AM, Hauck CG, Weber DJ, et al. Bacterial infections after burn injuries: impact of multidrug resistance. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;65(12):2130–2136.
  • Azzopardi EA, Azzopardi SM, Boyce DE, et al. Emerging gram-negative infections in burn wounds. J Burn Care Res. 2011;32:570.
  • Clark NM, Patterson J, Lynch JP. Antimicrobial resistance among gram-negative organisms in the intensive care unit. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2003;9:413–423.
  • Geyik MF, Aldemir M, Hosoglu S, et al. Epidemiology of burn unit infections in children. Am J Infect Control. 2003;31:342–346.
  • Rennie RP, Jones RN, Mutnick AH. Occurrence and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of pathogens isolated from skin and soft tissue infections: report from the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program (United States and Canada, 2000). Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2003;45:287–293.
  • Mayhall CG. The epidemiology of burn wound infections: then and now. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;37:543–550.
  • Halstead FD, Rauf M, Moiemen NS, et al. The antibacterial activity of acetic acid against Biofilm-producing pathogens of relevance to burns patients. PLoS One. 2015;10:e0136190.
  • Halstead FD, Rauf M, Bamford A, et al. Antimicrobial dressings: comparison of the ability of a panel of dressings to prevent biofilm formation by key burn wound pathogens. Burns. 2015;41:1683.
  • McManus AT, Mason AD Jr, McManus WF, et al. Twenty-five year review of Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteremia in a burn center. Eur J Clin Microbiol. 1985;4:219–223.
  • Chim H, Tan BH, Song C. Five-year review of infections in a burn intensive care unit: high incidence of Acinetobacter baumannii in a tropical climate. Burns. 2007;33:1008–1014.
  • Keen EF 3rd, Robinson BJ, Hospenthal DR, et al. Prevalence of multidrug-resistant organisms recovered at a military burn center. Burns. 2010;36:819–825.
  • Rhomberg PR, Jones RN. Summary trends for the Meropenem Yearly Susceptibility Test Information Collection Program: a 10-year experience in the United States (1999-2008). Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2009;65:414.
  • Patel JA, Williams-Bouyer N. Infections in burn patients. In: Feigin RD, editor. Feigin & Cherry’s Textbook of Pediatric Infectious Diseases. Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier; 2009. p. 1139–1151.
  • Singh NP, Rani M, Gupta K, et al. Changing trends in antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of bacterial isolates in a burn unit. Burns. 2017;43(5):1083–1087.
  • Munier A-L, Biard L, Legrand M, et al. Incidence, risk factors and outcome of multi-drug resistant Acinetobacter baumannii nosocomial infections during an outbreak in a burn unit. Inter J Infect Dis. 2019;79:179–184.
  • Horvath EE, Murray CK, Vaughan GM, et al. Fungal wound infection (not colonization) is independently associated with mortality in burn patients. Ann Surg. 2007;245:978–985.
  • Sakabe D, Del Fiol FDS. Profile of infections and antimicrobial treatment among burn-injury patients. Am J Infect Control. 2016;44(8):950–952.
  • Wisplinghoff H, Bischoff T, Tallent SM, et al. Nosocomial bloodstream infections in US hospitals: analysis of 24,179 cases from a prospective nationwide surveillance study. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39:309–317.
  • Zhou J, Tan J, Gong Y, et al. Candidemia in major burn patients and its possible risk factors: A 6-year period retrospective study at a burn ICU. Burns. 2019;45(5):1164–1171.
  • Renau Escrig AI, Salavert M, Vivó C, et al. Candidemia in major burns patients. Mycoses. 2016;59(6):391–398.
  • Leroy O, Mira JP, Montravers P, et al. Comparison of albicans vs. non-albicans candidemia in French intensive care units. Crit Care. 2010;14:R98.
  • Foley FD, Greenawald KA, Nash G, et al. Herpesvirus infection in burned patients. N Engl J Med. 1970;282:652.
  • Merchant N, Smith K, Jeschke MG. An ounce of prevention saves tons of lives: infection in burns. Surg Infec. 2015;16(4):380–387.
  • Rutala WA, Weber DJ. Are room decontamination units needed to prevent transmission of environmental pathogens? Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2011;32(743–7).
  • Dokter J, Brusselaers N, Hendriks WDH, et al. Bacteriological cultures on admission of the burn patient: to do or not to do, that’s the question. Burns. 2016;42(2):421–427.
  • Posluszny JA Jr., Conrad P, Shankar R, et al. Surgical burn wound infections and their clinical implications. J Burn Care Res. 2011;32(2):324–333.
  • Kwei J, Halstead FD, Dretzke J, et al. Protocol for a systematic review of quantitative burn wound microbiology in the management of burns patients. Syst Rev. 2015;4.
  • Tahlan RN, Keswant RK, Saini S, et al. Correlation of quantitative burn wound biopsy culture and surface swab cultures to burn wound sepsis. Burns Incl Therm Inj. 1984;10(3):217–224.
  • Levine NS, Lindberg RB, Mason AD Jr., et al. The quantitative swab culture and smear: a quick, simple method for determining the number of viable aerobic bacteria on open wounds. J Trauma. 1976;16(2):89–94.
  • Sjöberg T, Mzezewa S, Jönsson K, et al. Comparison of surface swab cultures and quantitative tissue biopsy cultures to predict sepsis in burn patients: a prospective study. J Burn Care Rehabil. 2003;24(6):365–370.
  • Dansby W, Purdue G, Hunt J, et al. Aerosolization of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus during an epidemic in a burn intensive care unit. J Burn Care Res. 2008;29:331–337.
  • Rosenberger LH, Hranjec T, Politano AD, et al. Effective cohorting and “superisolation” in a single intensive care unit in response to an outbreak of diverse multi-drug- resistant organisms. Surg Infect. 2011;12:345–350.
  • Moufarrij S, Deghayli L, Raffoul W, et al. How important is hydrotherapy? Effects of dynamic action of hot spring water as a rehabilitative treatment for burn patients in Switzerland. Ann Burns Fire Disasters. 2014;27:184–191.
  • Gümüs N, Erkilic A, Analay H. Water jet for early treatment of chemical burn. Burns. 2010;36:e36–7.
  • Abreu AC, Tavares RR, Borges A, et al. Current and emergent strategies for disinfection of hospital environments. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2013;68(12):2718–2732.
  • Embil JM, Mcleod JA, Al-Barrak AM, et al. An outbreak of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus on a burn unit: potential role of contaminated hydrotherapy equipment. Burns. 2001;27(7):681–688.
  • Tecklin JS. Pediatric physical therapy. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2008. p. 569–570.
  • Hudspith J, Rayatt S. First aid and treatment of minor burns. BMJ. 2004;328:1487–1489.
  • Dai T, Huang Y, Sharma SK, et al. Topical antimicrobials for burn wound infections. Recent Pat Antiinfect Drug Discov. 2010;5:124–151.
  • Storm-Versloot MN, Vos CG, Ubbink DT, et al. Topical silver for preventing wound infection. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;(3):CD006478.
  • Pirnay JP, De Vos D, Cochez C, et al. Molecular epidemiology of Pseudomonas aeruginosa colonization in a burn unit: persistence of a multidrug-resistant clone and a silver sulfadiazine-resistant clone. J Clin Microbiol. 2003;41:1192–1202.
  • Heggers JP, Hawkins H, Edgar P, et al. Treatment of infections in burns. In: Herndon DN, editor. Total burn care. London, England: Saunders; 2002. p. 120–169.
  • Dunn K, Edwards-Jones V. The role of Acticoat with nanocrystalline silver in the management of burns. Burns. 2004;30(Suppl. 1):S1–9.
  • Nímia HH, Carvalho VG, Isaac C, et al. Comparative study of Silver Sulfadiazine with other materials for healing and infection prevention in burns: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Burns. 2019;45(2):282–292.
  • Wasiak J, Cleland H, Campbell F, et al. Dressings for superficial and partial thickness burns. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;(3). Art. No.: CD002106. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD002106.pub4.
  • Heggers J, Goodheart RE, Washington J, et al. Therapeutic efficacy of three silver dressings in an infected animal model. J Burn Care Rehabil. 2005;26:53–56.
  • Percival SL, Thomas J, Linton S, et al. The antimicrobial efficacy of silver on antibiotic-resistant bacteria isolated from burn wounds. Int Wound J. 2012;9(5):488–493.
  • Townsend CM, Beauchamp RD, Evers M, et al. Sabiston Textbook of Surgery. 20th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2017. p. 148–151.
  • Monafo WW, West MA. Current treatment recommendations for topical burn therapy. Drugs. 1990;40:364–373.
  • Murphy KD, Lee JO, Herndon DN. Current pharmacotherapy for the treatment of severe burns. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2003;4:369–384.
  • Heggers JP, Robson MC, Herndon DN, et al. The efficacy of nystatin combined with topical microbial agents in the treatment of burn wound sepsis. J Burn Care Rehabil. 1989;10:508–511.
  • Glasser JS, Guymon CH, Mende K, et al. Activity of topical antimicrobial agents against multidrug-resistant bacteria recovered from burn patients. Burns. 2010;36(8):1172–1184.
  • Wright JB, Lam K, Hansen D, et al. Efficacy of topical silver against fungal burn wound pathogens. Am J Infect Control. 1999;27:344–350.
  • Avni T, Levcovich A, Ad-El DD, et al. Prophylactic antibiotics for burns patients: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2010;340:c241.
  • ISBI Practice Guidelines Committee. ISBI practice guidelines for burn care. Burns. 2016;42:953–1021.
  • O’Driscoll T, Crank CW. Vancomycin-resistant enterococcal infections: epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and optimal management. Infect Drug Resist. 2015;8:217–230.
  • Ravat F, Le-Floch R, Vinsonneau C, et al. Antibiotics and the burn patient. Burns. 2011;37(1):16–26.
  • Collier ZJ, Gottlieb LJ, Alverdy JC. Stochasticity among antibiotic-resistance profiles of common burn-related pathogens over a six-year period. Surg Infect (Larchmt). 2017;18(3):327–335.
  • Silvestri L, van Saene HK, Milanese M, et al. Selective decontamination of the digestive tract reduces bacterial bloodstream infection and mortality in critically ill patients. Systematic review of randomized, controlled trials. J Hosp Infect. 2007;65:187–203.
  • Lopez ON, Cambiaso-Daniel J, Branski LK, et al. Predicting and managing sepsis in burn patients: current perspectives. Ther Clin Risk Manag. 2017;13:1107–1117.
  • Guo Y, Gao W, Yang H, et al. De-escalation of empiric antibiotics in patients with severe sepsis or septic shock: A meta-analysis. Heart Lung. 2016;45(5):454–459.
  • Sevgi M, Toklu A, Vecchio D, et al. Topical antimicrobials for burn infections – an update. Recent Pat Antiinfect Drug Discov. 2013;8(3):161–197.
  • Ulkür E, Oncul O, Karagoz H, et al. Comparison of silver-coated dressing (Acticoat), chlorhexidine acetate 0.5% (Bactigrass), and fusidic acid 2% (Fucidin) for topical antibacterial effect in methicillin-resistant Staphylococci-contaminated, full-skin thickness rat burn wounds. Burns. 2015;31(7):874–877.
  • Segatore B, Bellio P, Setacci D, et al. In vitro interaction of usnic acid in combination with antimicrobial agents against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus clinical isolates determined by FICI and DeltaE model methods. Phytomedicine. 2012;19(3–4):341–347.
  • Nunes PS, Albuquerque-Júnior RLC, Cavalcante DRR, et al. Collagen-Based Films Containing Liposome-Loaded Usnic Acid as Dressing for Dermal Burn Healing. J Biomed Biotechnol. 2011;2011.
  • Dale RM, Schnell G, Wong JP. Therapeutic efficacy of “nubiotics” against burn wound infection by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2004;48(8):2918–2923.
  • Silvestri L, van Saene HK. Selective decontamination of the digestive tract: an update of the evidence. HSR Proc Intensive Care Cardiovasc Anesth. 2012;4:21–29.
  • Hidalgo F, Mas D, Rubio M, et al. Infections in critically ill burn patients. Med Intensiva. 2016;40(3):179–185.
  • Cockerill FR, Muller SR, Anhalt JP, et al. Prevention of infection in critically ill patients by selective decontamination of the digestive tract. Ann Intern Med. 1992;117(7):545–553.
  • López-Rodgríguez L, de la Cal MA, García-Hierro P, et al. Selective digestive decontamination attenuates organ dysfunction in critically Ill burn patients. Shcok. 2016;46(5):492–497.
  • Silvestri L, de la Cal MA, Taylor N, et al. Selective decontamination of the digestive tract in burn patients: an evidence-based maneuver that reduces mortality. J Burn Care Res. 2010;31:372–373.
  • Alverdy JC, Laughlin RS, Wu L. Influence of the critically ill state on host-pathogen interactions within the intestine: gut-derived sepsis redefined. Crit Care Med. 2003;31:598–607.
  • Shimizu K, Ogura H, Goto M, et al. Altered gut flora and environment in patients with severe SIRS. J Trauma. 2006;60:126–133.
  • McDonald D, Ackermann G, Khailova L, et al. Extreme dysbiosis of the Microbiome in critical illness. mSphere. 2016;1:e00199–16.
  • Magnotti LJ, Deitch EA. Burns, bacterial translocation, gut barrier function, and failure. J Burn Care Rehabil. 2005;26:383–391.
  • Choudhry MA, Rana SN, Kavanaugh MJ, et al. Impaired intestinal immunity and barrier function: A cause for enhanced bacterial translocation in alcohol intoxication and burn injury. Alcohol. 2004;33:199–208.
  • Earley ZM, Akhtar S, Green SJ, et al. Burn injury alters the intestinal microbiome and increases gut permeability and bacterial translocation. PLoS One. 2015;10(7):e0129996.
  • Howard BM, Kornblith LZ, Christie SA, et al. Characterizing the gut microbiome in trauma: significant changes in microbial diversity occur early after severe injury. Trauma Surg Acute Care Open. 2017;2:e000108.
  • Wei Y, Yang J, Wang J, et al. Successful treatment with fecal microbiota transplantation in patients with multiple organ dysfunction syndrome and diarrhea following severe sepsis. Crit Care. 2016;20:332.
  • Jun YH, Jeun SJ, Kang SH, et al. Colistin therapy for multidrug-resistant Gram-negative infection: clinical outcome and risk factors. Infection. 2013;41(6):1195–1198.
  • Girerd-Genessay I, Bénet T, Vanhems P. Multidrug-resistant bacterial outbreaks in burn units: A synthesis of the literature according to the Orion statement. J Burn Care Res. 2016;37(3):172–180.
  • Fochtmann-Frana A, Freystätter C, Vorstandlechner V, et al. Incidence of risk factors for bloodstream infections in patients with major burns receiving intensive care: A retrospective single-center cohort study. Burns. 2018;44(4):784–792.
  • Mir MA, Khurram MF, Khan AH. What should be the antibiotic prescription protocol for burn patients admitted in the department of burns, plastic and reconstructive surgery. Int Wound J. 2017;14(1):194–197.
  • Wanis M, Walker SA, Daneman N, et al. Impact of hospital length of stay on the distribution of Gram negative bacteria and likelihood of isolating a resistant organism in a Canadian burn center. Burns. 2016;42:104–111.
  • van Duin D, Strassle PD, DiBiase LM, et al. Timeline of health care-associated infections and pathogens after burn injuries. Am J Infect Control. 2016;44(12):1511–1516.
  • Kanamori H, Parobek CM, Juliano JJ, et al. A prolonged outbreak of KPC-3-producing Enterobacter cloacae and Klebsiella pneumoniae driven by multiple mechanisms of resistance transmission at a large academic burn center. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2017;61: pii: e01516-16.
  • Cavalcante Rde S, Canet P, Fortaleza CM. Risk factors for the acquisition of imipenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii in a burn unit: an appraisal of the effect of colonization pressure. Scand J Infect Dis. 2014;46:593–598.
  • Wibbenmeyer L, Williams I, Ward M, et al. Risk factors for acquiring vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus on a burn surgery step-down unit. J Burn Care Res. 2010;31:269–279.
  • Sun F-J, Zhang X-B, Fang Y, et al. Spectrum and drug resistance of pathogens from patients with burns. Burns. 2012;38(8):1124–1130.
  • Carr JA, Phillips BD, Bowling WM. The utility of bronchoscopy after inhalation injury complicated by pneumonia in burn patients: results from the National Burn Repository. J Burn Care Res. 2009;30:967–974.
  • Bower PG. Bacterial growth guideline: reassessing its clinical relevance in wound healing. Wound Manage Prev. 2003;49(1):44–53.
  • Steer JA, Papini RP, Wilson AP, et al. Quantitative microbiology in the management of burn patients. II. Relationship between bacterial counts obtained by burn wound biopsy culture and surface alginate swab culture, with clinical outcome following burn surgery and change of dressings. Burns. 1996;22:177–181.
  • Steer JA, Papini RP, Wilson AP, et al. Quantitative microbiology in the management of burn patients. I. Correlation between quantitative and qualitative burn wound biopsy culture and surface alginate swab culture. Burns. 1996;22:173–176.
  • Lavrentieva A, Kontakiotis T, Lazaridis L, et al. Inflammatory markers in patients with severe burn injury. What is the best indicator of sepsis? Burns. 2007;33:189–194.
  • Greenhalgh DG, Saffle JR, Holmes JH IV et al. American Burn Association consensus conference to define sepsis and infection in burns, Tucson, Arizona. J Burn Care Res 28, 776–790 (2007).
  • Greenhalgh DG. Defining sepsis in burn patients: still a long way to go. J Burn Care Res. 2017;38(6):e990–1.
  • Yan J, Hill WF, Rehou S, et al. Sepsis criteria versus clinical diagnosis of sepsis in burn patients: A validation of current sepsis scores. Surgery. 2018;164(6):1241–1245.
  • Cabral L, Afreixo V, Almeida L, et al. The use of procalcitonin (PCT) for diagnosis of sepsis in burn patients: a meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2016;11:e0168475.
  • Lavrentieva A, Kontou P, Soulountsi V, et al. Implementation of a procalcitonin-guided algorithm for antibiotic therapy in the burn intensive care unit. Ann Burns Fire Disasters. 2015;28:163–170.
  • Mermel LA, Allon M, Bouza E, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of intravascular catheter-related infection: 2009 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;49:1–45.
  • Raz R, Schiller D, Nicolle LE. Chronic indwelling catheter replacement before antimicrobial therapy for symptomatic urinary tract infection. J Urol. 2000;164:1254–1258.
  • Binkley S, Fishman NO, LaRosa LA, et al. Comparison of unit-specific and hospital-wide antibiograms: potential implications for selection of empirical antimicrobial therapy. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2006;27:682–687.
  • Barlam TF, Cosgrove SE, Abbo LM, et al. Implementing an antibiotic stewardship program: guidelines by the infectious diseases society of America and the society for healthcare epidemiology of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;62:e51–77.
  • Wagner B, Filice GA, Drekonja D, et al. Antimicrobial stewardship programs in inpatient hospital settings: a systematic review. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2014;35:1209–1228.
  • Cota JM, Fakhri Ravari A, Rowan MP, et al. Intravenous antibiotic and antifungal agent pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic dosing in adults with severe burn injury. Clin Ther. 2016;38:2016–2031.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.