187
Views
1
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Novel strategies for the management of bacterial and fungal infections in patients with liver cirrhosis: focus on new antimicrobials

, , , , , , & show all
Pages 191-202 | Received 15 Nov 2019, Accepted 31 Jan 2020, Published online: 13 Feb 2020

References

  • Wong MCS, Huang Trautmann M. The growing burden of liver cirrhosis: implications for preventive measures. Hepatol Int. 2018;12:201–203.
  • GBD 2017. Causes of death collaborators. Global, regional, and national age-sex-specific mortality for 282 causes of death in 195 countries and territories, 1980-2017: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. Lancet. 2018;392:1736–1788.
  • Tsochatzis EA, Bosch J, Burroughs AK. Liver cirrhosis. Lancet. 2014;383:1749–1761.
  • Gentile I, Scotto R, Zappulo E, et al. Investigational direct-acting antivirals in hepatitis C treatment: the latest drugs in clinical development. Expert Opin Investig Drugs. 2016;25(5):557–572.
  • Scotto R, Buonomo AR, Moriello NS, et al. Real-world efficacy and safety of pangenotypic direct-acting antivirals against hepatitis C virus infection. Rev Recent Clin Trials. 2019;14(3):173–182.
  • Gentile I, Coppola N, Buonomo AR, et al. Investigational nucleoside and nucleotide polymerase inhibitors and their use in treating hepatitis C virus. Expert Opin Investig Drugs. 2014 Sep;23(9):1211–1223.
  • Gentile I, Maraolo AE, Buonomo AR, et al. The discovery of sofosbuvir: a revolution for therapy of chronic hepatitis C. Expert Opin Drug Discov. 2015;10:1363–1377.
  • Asrani SK, Devarbhavi H, Eaton J, et al. Burden of liver diseases in the world. J Hepatol. 2019;70:151–171.
  • Gentile I, Buonomo AR, Coppola C, et al. Efficacy of the “first wave” direct acting antivirals against HCV infection: results from the Italian LINA (Liver Network Activity) cohort. New Microbiol. 2019 Apr;42(2):94–100.
  • Bernardi M, Caraceni P. Novel perspectives in the management of decompensated cirrhosis. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2018;15:753–764.
  • D’Amico G, Garcia-Tsao G, Pagliaro L. Natural history and prognostic indicators of survival in cirrhosis: a systematic review of 118 studies. J Hepatol. 2006;44:217–231.
  • Gentile I, Scotto R, Coppola C, et al. Treatment with direct-acting antivirals improves the clinical outcome in patients with HCV-related decompensated cirrhosis: results from an Italian real-life cohort (liver network activity-LINA cohort). Hepatol Int. 2019 Jan;13(1):66–74.
  • Gentile I, Buonomo AR, Scotto R, et al. Infections worsen prognosis of patients with cirrhosis irrespective of the liver disease stage. Eur J Intern Med. 2017;46:e45–e47.
  • Dionigi E, Garcovich M, Borzio M, et al. Bacterial infections change natural history of cirrhosis irrespective of liver disease severity. Am J Gastroenterol. 2017;12:588–596.
  • Gustot T, Moreau R. Acute-on-chronic liver failure vs. traditional acute decompensation of cirrhosis. J Hepatol. 2018;69:1384–1393.
  • Fernández J1, Acevedo J, Castro M, et al. Prevalence and risk factors of infections by multiresistant bacteria in cirrhosis: a prospective study. Hepatology. 2012 May;55(5):1551–1561.
  • Fernández J, Prado V, Trebicka J, et al. Multidrug-resistant bacterial infections in patients with decompensated cirrhosis and with acute-on-chronic liver failure in Europe. J Hepatol. 2019 Mar;70(3):398–411.
  • Brumble L, Keaveny AP. Editorial: the risky business of fungal infections in patients with cirrhosis. Am J Gastroenterol. 2018;113:564–566.
  • Arvaniti V, D’Amico G, Fede G, et al. Infections in patients with cirrhosis increase mortality four-fold and should be used in determining prognosis. Gastroenterology. 2010;139:1246–1256.
  • Albillos A, Lario M, Álvarez-Mon M. Cirrhosis-associated immune dysfunction: distinctive features and clinical relevance. J Hepatol. 2014;61:1385–1396.
  • Buonomo AR, Zappulo E, Scotto R, et al. D deficiency is a risk factor for infections in patients affected by HCV-related liver cirrhosis. Int J Infect Dis. 2017;63:23–29.
  • Noor MT, Manoria P. Immune dysfunction in cirrhosis. J Clin Transl Hepatol. 2017;5:50–58.
  • Jalan R, Fernandez J, Wiest R, et al. Bacterial infections in cirrhosis: A position statement based on the EASL special conference 2013. J Hepatol. 2014;60:1314–1324.
  • Bunchorntavakul C, Chamroonkul N, Chavalitdhamrong D. Bacterial infections in cirrhosis: A critical review and practical guidance. World J Hepatol. 2016;8:307–321.
  • Santarpia L, Buonomo A, Pagano MC, et al. venous catheter related bloodstream infections in adult patients on home parenteral nutrition: prevalence, predictive factors, therapeutic outcome. Clin Nutr. 2016 Dec;35(6):1394–1398.
  • Shizuma T. Spontaneous bacterial and fungal peritonitis in patients with liver cirrhosis: A literature review. World J Hepatol. 2018;10:254–266.
  • Bajaj JS, Liu EJ, Kheradman R, et al. Fungal dysbiosis in cirrhosis. Gut. 2018;67:1146–1154.
  • Iogna Prat L, Wilson P, Freeman SC, et al. Antibiotic treatment for spontaneous bacterial peritonitis in people with decompensated liver cirrhosis: a network meta-analysis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019;9:CD013120.
  • European Association for the Study of the Liver. EASL clinical practice guidelines for the management of patients with decompensated cirrhosis. J Hepatol. 2018;69:406–460.
  • Bartoletti M, Giannella M, Lewis R, et al. A prospective multicentre study of the epidemiology and outcomes of bloodstream infection in patients with cirrhosis. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2017;24:546e1–546e8.
  • Sunjaya DB, Lennon RJ, Shah VH, et al. Prevalence and predictors of third-generation cephalosporin resistance in the empirical treatment of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis. Mayo Clin Proc. 2019;94:1499–1508.
  • Righi E. Management of bacterial and fungal infections in end stage liver disease and liver transplantation: current options and future directions. World J Gastroenterol. 2018;24:4311–4329.
  • Bassetti M, Peghin M, Carnelutti A, et al. Clinical characteristics and predictors of mortality in patients with cirrhosis with candidemia and intra-abdominal candidiasis: a multicenter study. Intensive Care Med. 2017;43:509–518.
  • Fiore M, Chiodini P, Pota V, et al. Risk of spontaneous fungal peritonitis in hospitalized patients with cirrhosis with ascites: a systematic review of observational studies and meta-analysis. Minerva Anestesiol. 2017;83(12):1309–1316.
  • Prattes J, Hoenigl M, Krause R, et al. Invasive aspergillosis in patients with underlying liver cirrhosis: a prospective cohort study. Med Mycol. 2017;55:803–812.
  • Levesque E, Ait-Ammar N, Dudau D, et al. Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in patients with cirrhosis: analysis of a 10-year clinical experience. Ann Intensive Care. 2019;9:31.
  • Lahmer T, Brandl A, Rasch S, et al. Prevalence and outcome of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in critically ill patients with liver cirrhosis: an observational study. Sci Rep. 2019;9:11919.
  • Piano S, Singh V, Caraceni P, et al. Epidemiology and effects of bacterial infections in patients with cirrhosis worldwide. Gastroenterology. 2019;156:1368–80.e10.
  • Fiore M, Gentile I, Maraolo AE, et al. Are third-generation cephalosporins still the empirical antibiotic treatment of community-acquired spontaneous bacterial peritonitis? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2018;30:329–336.
  • Fiore M, Maraolo AE, Gentile I, et al. Current concepts and future strategies in the antimicrobial therapy of emerging Gram-positive spontaneous bacterial peritonitis. World J Hepatol. 2017;9:1166–1175.
  • Maraolo AE, Gentile I, Pinchera B, et al. Current and emerging pharmacotherapy for the treatment of bacterial peritonitis. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2018;19:1317–1325.
  • Ison MG. Empiric treatment of nosocomial spontaneous bacterial peritonitis: one size does not fit all. Hepatology. 2016;63:1083–1085.
  • Pappas PG, Kauffman CA, Andes DR, et al. Clinical practice guideline for the Management of candidiasis: 2016 update by the infectious diseases society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;62:e1–e50.
  • Schneeweiss S, Carver PL, Datta K, et al. Long-term risk of hepatocellular carcinoma mortality in 23220 hospitalized patients treated with micafungin or other parenteral antifungals. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2019;dkz396. [Epub ahead of print]. doi:10.1093/jac/dkz396.
  • Theuretzbacher U, Paul M. Revival of old antibiotics: structuring the re-development process to optimize usage. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2015;21:878–880.
  • Giacobbe DR, Saffioti C, Losito AR, et al. Use of colistin in adult patients: a cross-sectional study. J Glob Antimicrob Resist. 2019;S2213-7165(19)30153–5. [Epub ahead of print]. doi:10.1016/j.jgar.2019.06.009.
  • van Duin D, Bonomo RA. Ceftazidime/avibactam and ceftolozane/tazobactam: second-generation β-lactam/β-lactamase inhibitor combinations. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;63:234–241.
  • Gentile I, Maraolo AE, Borgia G. What is the role of the new β-lactam/β-lactamase inhibitors ceftolozane/tazobactam and ceftazidime/avibactam? Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2016;14:875–878.
  • Shortridge D, Duncan LR, Pfaller MA, et al. Activity of ceftolozane-tazobactam and comparators when tested against Gram-negative isolates collected from paediatric patients in the USA and Europe between 2012 and 2016 as part of a global surveillance programme. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2019;53:637–643.
  • Petrosillo N, Taglietti F, Granata G. Treatment options for colistin resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae: present and Future. J Clin Med. 2019;8:E934.
  • Bassetti M, Peghin M, Vena A, et al. Treatment of Infections due to MDR Gram-negative bacteria. Front Med (Lausanne). 2019;6:74.
  • Corcione S, Lupia T, Maraolo AE, et al. Carbapenem-sparing strategy: carbapenemase, treatment, and stewardship. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2019;32:663–673.
  • Rodriguez-Bano J. The times they are a-changin’: carbapenems for extended-spectrum-betalactamase-producing bacteria. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2015;59:5095–5096.
  • Mensa J, Barberán J, Soriano A, et al. Antibiotic selection in the treatment of acute invasive infections by pseudomonas aeruginosa: guidelines by the Spanish Society of Chemotherapy. Rev Esp Quimioter. 2018;31:78–100.
  • Shirley M. Ceftazidime-avibactam: a review in the treatment of serious Gram-negative bacterial infections. Drugs. 2018;78:675–692.
  • Solomkin J, Hershberger E, Miller B, et al. Ceftolozane/tazobactam plus metronidazole for complicated intra-abdominal infections in an era of multidrug resistance: results ##rial (ASPECT-cIAI). Clin Infect Dis. 2015;60:1462–1471.
  • Mazuski JE, Gasink LB, Armstrong J, et al. Efficacy and safety of ceftazidime-avibactam plus metronidazole versus meropenem in the treatment of complicated intra-abdominal infection: results from a randomized, controlled, double-blind, phase 3 program. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;62:1380–1389.
  • Kollef MH, Nováček M, Kivistik Ü, et al. Ceftolozane-tazobactam versus meropenem for treatment of nosocomial pneumonia (ASPECT-NP): a randomised, controlled, double-blind, phase 3, non-inferiority trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2019;19:1299–1311. .
  • Escolà-Vergé L, Pigrau C, Almirante B. Ceftolozane/tazobactam for the treatment of complicated intra-abdominal and urinary tract infections: current perspectives and place in therapy. Infect Drug Resist. 2019;12:1853–1867.
  • Tumbarello M, Trecarichi EM, Corona A, et al. Efficacy of ceftazidime-avibactam salvage therapy in patients with infections caused by klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemase–producing K. pneumoniae. Clin Infect Dis. 2019;68:355–364.
  • Zhanel GG, Lawrence CK, Adam H, et al. Imipenem-relebactam and meropenem-vaborbactam: two novel carbapenem-β-lactamase inhibitor combinations. Drugs. 2018;78:65–98.
  • Kaye KS, Bhowmick T, Metallidis S, et al. Effect of meropenem-vaborbactam vs piperacillin-tazobactam on clinical cure or improvement and microbial eradication in complicated urinary tract infection: the TANGO I randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2018;319:788–799.
  • Wunderink RG, Giamarellos-Bourboulis EJ, Rahav G, et al. Effect and safety of meropenem-vaborbactam versus best-available therapy in patients with carbapenem-resistant enterobacteriaceae infections: the TANGO II randomized clinical trial. Infect Dis Ther. 2018;7:439–455.
  • Pogue JM, Bonomo RA, Kaye KS. Ceftazidime/ avibactam,meropenem/ vaborbactam,or both? Clinical and formulary considerations. Clin Infect Dis. 2019;68:519–524.
  • Motsch J, Murta de Oliveira C, Stus V, et al. RESTORE-IMI 1: A multicenter, randomized, double-blind trial comparing efficacy and safety of imipenem/relebactam vs colistin plus imipenem in patients with imipenem-nonsusceptible bacterial infections. Clin Infect Dis. 2019 [Epub ahead of print]. DOI:10.1093/cid/ciz530
  • Zhanel GG, Golden AR, Zelenitsky S, et al. Cefiderocol: a siderophore cephalosporin with activity against carbapenem-resistant and multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacilli. Drugs. 2019;79:271–289.
  • Schalk IJ. Siderophore–antibiotic conjugates: exploiting iron uptake to deliver drugs into bacteria. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2018;24:801–802.
  • Portsmouth S, van Veenhuyzen D, Echols R, et al. Cefiderocol versus imipenem-cilastatin for the treatment of complicated urinary tract infections caused by Gram-negative uropathogens: a phase 2, randomised, double-blind, non-inferiority trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2018;18:1319–1328.
  • Antimicrobial drugs advisory committee cefiderocol briefing document. [Access date: 2020 February 6th] Available from: https://www.fda.gov/media/131705/download
  • Shaeer KM, Zmarlicka MT, Chahine EB, et al. Plazomicin: a next-generation aminoglycoside. Pharmacotherapy. 2019;39:77–93.
  • Serio AW, Keepers T, Krause KM. Plazomicin is active against metallo-β-lactamase-producing enterobacteriaceae. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2019;6:ofz123.
  • Wagenlehner FM, Cloutier DJ, Komirenko AS, et al. Once-daily plazomicin for complicated urinary tract infections. N Engl J Med. 2019;380:729–740.
  • Scott LJ. Eravacycline: a review in complicated intra-abdominal infections. Drugs. 2019;79:315–324.
  • Solomkin J, Evans D, Slepavicius A, et al. Assessing the efficacy and safety of eravacycline vs ertapenem in complicated intra-abdominal infections in the investigating Gram-negative infections treated with eravacycline (IGNITE 1) trial: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Surg. 2017;152:224–232.
  • Solomkin JS, Gardovskis J, Lawrence K, et al. IGNITE4: results of a phase 3, randomized, multicenter, prospective trial of eravacycline vs meropenem in the treatment of complicated intraabdominal infections. Clin Infect Dis. 2019;69:921–929.
  • Pfaller MA, Mendes RE, Duncan LR, et al. Activity of dalbavancin and comparator agents against Gram-positive cocci from clinical infections in the USA and Europe 2015-16. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2018;73:2748–2756.
  • Zhanel GG, Calic D, Schweizer F, et al. New lipoglycopeptides: a comparative review of dalbavancin, oritavancin and telavancin. Drugs. 2010;70:859–886.
  • Nicolau DP, Sun HK, Seltzer E, et al. Pharmacokinetics of dalbavancin in plasma and skin blister fluid. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2007;60:681–684.
  • Dalbavancin Summury of Product Characteristics.[cited 2020 Feb 06]. Available from: https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/product-information/xydalba-epar-product-information_en.pdf
  • Boucher HW, Wilcox M, Talbot GH, et al. Once-weekly dalbavancin versus daily conventional therapy for skin infection. NEJM. 2014;370:2169–2179.
  • Dunne MW, Puttagunta S, Giordano P, et al. A randomized clinical trial of single-dose versus weekly dalbavancin for treatment of acute bacterial skin and skin structure infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;62:545–551.
  • Dunne MW, Puttagunta S, Sprenger CR, et al. Extended-duration dosing and distribution of dalbavancin into bone and articular tissue. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2015;59:1849–1855.
  • Rappo U, Puttagunta S, Shevchenko V, et al. Dalbavancin for the treatment of osteomyelitis in adult patients: a randomized clinical trial of efficacy and safety. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2019;6:ofy331.
  • Wilson AP. Clinical pharmacokinetics of teicoplanin. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2000;39:167–183.
  • Marbury T, Dowell JA, Seltzer E, et al. Pharmacokinetics of dalbavancin in patients with renal or hepatic impairment. J Clin Pharmacol. 2009;49:465–476.
  • Leighton A, Gottlieb AB, Dorr MB, et al. Tolerability, pharmacokinetics, and serum bactericidal activity of intravenous dalbavancin in healthy volunteers. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2004;48:940–945.
  • Morosini MI, Diez-Aguilar M, Canton R. Mechanisms of action and antimicrobial activity of ceftobiprole. Rev Esp Quimioter. 2019;32(Suppl 3):3–10.
  • Zhanel GG, Sniezek G, Schweizer F, et al. Ceftaroline: a novel broad-spectrum cephalosporin with activity against meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Drugs. 2009;69:809–831.
  • Mushtaq S, Warner M, Ge Y, et al. In vitro activity of ceftaroline (PPI-0903M, T-91825) against bacteria with defined resistance mechanisms and phenotypes. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2007;60:300–311.
  • FDA OKs Label Update for Antibiotic Ceftaroline Fosamil. [cited 2020 Feb 06]. Available from: https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/850463
  • File, Jr TM Jr., Low DE, Eckburg PB, et al. Integrated analysis of FOCUS 1 and FOCUS 2: randomized, doubled-blinded, multicenter phase 3 trials of the efficacy and safety of ceftaroline fosamil versus ceftriaxone in patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;51:1395–1405.
  • Corey GR, Wilcox M, Talbot GH, et al. Integrated analysis of CANVAS 1 and 2: phase 3, multicenter, randomized, double-blind studies to evaluate the safety and efficacy of ceftaroline versus vancomycin plus aztreonam in complicated skin and skin-structure infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;51:641–650.
  • Recent FDA Antibiotic Approvals: Good News and Bad News. [cited 2020 Feb 06]. Available from: https://cddep.org/blog/posts/recent_fda_antibiotic_approvals_good_news_and_bad_news/
  • Awad SS, Rodriguez AH, Chuang YC, et al. A phase 3 randomized double-blind comparison of ceftobiprole medocaril versus ceftazidime plus linezolid for the treatment of hospital-acquired pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59:51–61.
  • Nicholson SC, Welte T, File TM Jr., et al. A randomised, double-blind trial comparing ceftobiprole medocaril with ceftriaxone with or without linezolid for the treatment of patients with community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalisation. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2012;39:240–246.
  • Murthy B, Schmitt-Hoffmann A. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of ceftobiprole, an anti-MRSA cephalosporin with broad-spectrum activity. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2008;47:21–33.
  • Kiang TK, Wilby KJ, Ensom MH. A critical review on the clinical pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and clinical trials of ceftaroline. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2015;54:915–931.
  • Bensaci M, Sahm D. Surveillance of tedizolid activity and resistance: in vitro susceptibility of Gram-positive pathogens collected over 5 years from the United States and Europe. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2017;87:133–138.
  • Zhanel GG, Love R, Adam H, et al. Tedizolid: a novel oxazolidinone with potent activity against multidrug-resistant gram-positive pathogens. Drugs. 2015;75:253–270.
  • Kisgen JJ, Mansour H, Unger NR, et al. Tedizolid: a new oxazolidinone antimicrobial. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2014;71:621–633.
  • Sivextro. European medicines agency. [cited 2020 Feb 06]. Available from: https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/sivextro
  • Prokocimer P, De Anda C, Fang E, et al. Tedizolid phosphate vs linezolid for treatment of acute bacterial skin and skin structure infections: the ESTABLISH-1 randomized trial. JAMA. 2013;309:559–569.
  • Moran GJ, Fang E, Corey GR, et al. Tedizolid for 6 days versus linezolid for 10 days for acute bacterial skin and skin-structure infections (ESTABLISH-2): a randomised, double-blind, phase 3, non-inferiority trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2014;14:696–705.
  • Lee EY, Caffrey AR. Thrombocytopenia with Tedizolid and Linezolid. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2018;62:e01453–e17.
  • Ong V, Flanagan S, Fang E, et al. Absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of the novel antibacterial prodrug tedizolid phosphate. Drug Metab Dispos. 2014;42:1275–1284.
  • Flanagan S, Minassian SL, Morris D, et al. Pharmacokinetics of tedizolid in subjects with renal or hepatic impairment. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2014;58:6471–6476.
  • CHMP summary of positive opinion for Cresemba. [cited 2020 Feb 06]. Available from: https://www.ema.europa.eu/documents/smop-initial/chmp-summary-positive-opinion-cresemba_en.pdf
  • Maertens JA, Raad II, Marr KA, et al. Isavuconazole versus voriconazole for primary treatment of invasive mould disease caused by Aspergillus and other filamentous fungi (SECURE): a phase 3, randomised-controlled, non-inferiority trial. Lancet. 2016;387:760–769.
  • Desai A, Schmitt-Hoffmann AH, Mujais S, et al. Population pharmacokinetics of isavuconazole in subjects with mild or moderate hepatic impairment. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2016;60:3025–3031.
  • Cresemba. Summary of product characteristics. [cited 2020 Feb 06]. Available from: https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=4&ved=2ahUKEwijoZWu9bflAhVG6KQKHbbfDOQQFjADegQIARAC&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ema.europa.eu%2Fen%2Fdocuments%2Fproduct-information%2Fcresemba-epar-product-information_en.pdf&usg=AOvVaw3cRnOpKZS_tUs7680bAerC
  • Study of rezafungin compared to caspofungin in subjects with candidemia and/or invasive candidiasis (ReSTORE). ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03667690. [cited Oct 2019]. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03667690
  • Kullberg BJ, Viscoli C, Pappas PG, et al. Isavuconazole versus caspofungin in the treatment of candidemia and other invasive candida infections: the ACTIVE trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2019;68: 1981–199.
  • Astvad KMT, Hare RK, Arendrup MC. Evaluation of the in vitro activity of isavuconazole and comparator voriconazole against 2635 contemporary clinical Candida and Aspergillus isolates. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2017;23:882–887.
  • Maraolo AE, Buonomo AR, Zappulo E, et al. Unsolved issues in the treatment of spontaneous peritonitis in patients with cirrhosis: nosocomial versus community-acquired infections and the role of fungi. Rev Recent Clin Trials. 2019;14:129–135.
  • Hwang SY, Yu SJ, Lee JH, et al. Spontaneous fungal peritonitis: a severe complication in patients with advanced liver cirrhosis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2014;33:259–264.
  • Welte R, Eller P, Lorenz I, et al. Anidulafungin pharmacokinetics in ascites fluid and pleural effusion of critically Ill patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2018;6:e02326–e17.
  • Rezafungin pipeline. [cited 2020 Feb 06. Available from: https://www.cidara.com/rezafungin/
  • Outcomes in Europe from the STRIVE clinical trial of rezafungin treatment of candidaemia and/or invasive candidiasis - P2284. 29th ECCMID Conference; 2019 April 13-16; Amsterdam, Netherlands. [cited 2020 Feb 06]. Available from: https://www.escmid.org/escmid_publications/escmid_elibrary/material/?mid=69058
  • Pappas PG, Kauffman CA, Andes DR, et al. Executive summary: clinical practice guideline for the management of candidiasis: 2016 update by the infectious diseases society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;62:409–417.
  • Quraishi MN, Widlak M, Bhala N, et al. Systematic review with meta-analysis: the efficacy of faecal microbiota transplantation for the treatment of recurrent and refractory Clostridium difficile infection. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2017;46:479–493.
  • Faecal microbiota transplant for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. Interventional procedures guidance [IPG485]. [cited 2020 Feb 06]. Available from: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ipg485
  • Chen Y, Yang F, Lu H, et al. Characterization of fecal microbial communities in patients with liver cirrhosis. Hepatology. 2011;54:562–572.
  • Giannelli V, Di Gregorio V, Iebba V, et al. Microbiota and the gut-liver axis: bacterial translocation, inflammation and infection in cirrhosis. World J Gastroenterol. 2014;20:16795–16810.
  • Woodhouse CA, Patel VC, Goldenberg S, et al. PROFIT, a PROspective, randomised placebo controlled feasibility trial of Faecal mIcrobiota Transplantation in cirrhosis: study protocol for a single-blinded trial. BMJ Open. 2019;9:e023518.
  • DeFilipp Z, Bloom PP, Torres Soto M, et al. Drug-resistant E. coli bacteremia transmitted by fecal microbiota transplant. N Engl J Med. 2019;381(21):2043–2050.
  • Fiore M, Maraolo AE, Leone S, et al. Spontaneous peritonitis in critically ill patients with cirrhosis: a diagnostic algorithm for clinicians and future perspectives. Ther Clin Risk Manag. 2017;13:1409–1414.
  • Borgia G, Gentile I, Fortunato G, et al. Homocysteine levels and sustained virological response to pegylated-interferon alpha2b plus ribavirin therapy for chronic hepatitis C: a prospective study. Liver Int. 2009 Feb;29(2):248–252.
  • Maraolo AE, Giacobbe DR, Fiore M. The diagnostic conundrum of bacterial infections in patients with cirrhosis. Liver Int. 2017;37:1411.
  • Buonomo AR, Arcopinto M, Scotto R, et al. serum-ascites vitamin D gradient (SADG): A novel index in spontaneous bacterial peritonitis. Clin Res Hepatol Gastroenterol. 2019 Aug;43(4):e57–e60.
  • Gentile I, Borgia G. Surrogate endpoints and non-inferiority trials in chronic viral hepatitis. J Hepatol. 2010 May;52(5):778.
  • Piano S, Angeli P. Current concepts on bacterial and fungal infections in cirrhosis. Clin Liver Dis (Hoboken). 2019;14:87–91..
  • Fiore M, Maraolo AE, Gentile I, et al. Nosocomial spontaneous bacterial peritonitis antibiotic treatment in the era of multi-drug resistance pathogens: A systematic review. World J Gastroenterol. 2017;23:4654–4660.
  • Westphal JF, Jehl F, Vetter D. Pharmacological, toxicologic, and microbiological considerations in the choice of initial antibiotic therapy for serious infections in patients with cirrhosis of the liver. Clin Infect Dis. 1994;18:324–335.
  • Bartoletti M, Giannella M, Lewis RE, et al. Extended infusion of β-lactams for bloodstream infection in patients with liver cirrhosis: an observational multicenter study. Clin Infect Dis. 2019;69:1731–1739.
  • Peyclit L, Baron SA, Rolain JM. Drug repurposing to fight colistin and carbapenem-resistant bacteria. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2019;9:193.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.