Perceived Group Variability in Intergroup Relations: The Distinctive Role of Social Identity

References

• Allport , G. W. 1954 . The Nature of Prejudice Reading, MA : Addison-Wesley .
   Google Scholar
• Bartsch , R. A. and Judd , C. M. 1993 . Majority–minority status and preceived group variability revisited . European Journal of Social Psychology , 23 : 471 – 85 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Branscombe , N. R. and Wann , D. L. 1994 . Collective self-esteem consequences of outgroup derogation when a valued social identity is on trial . European Journal of Social Psychology , 24 : 641 – 57 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewer , M. B. 1991 . The social self: On being the same and different at the same time . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 17 : 475 – 82 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown , R. and Wootton-Millward , L. 1993 . Perceptions of group homogeneity during group formation and change . Social Cognition , 11 : 126 – 49 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castano , E. and Yzerbyt , V. Y. 1998 . The highs and lows of group homogeneity . Behavioural Processes , 42 : 219 – 238 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Devos , T. , Comby , L. and Deschamps , J.-C. 1996 . Asymmetries in judgements of ingroup and outgroup variability . European Review of Social Psychology , 7 : 95 – 144 .
   Google Scholar
• Doise , W. , Deschamps , J. C. and Meyer , G. 1978 . “ The accentuation of intra-category similarities ” . In Differentiation between Social Groups , Edited by: Tajfel , H. 159 – 68 . London : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Doosje , B. and Ellemers , N. 1997 . “ Stereotyping under threat: The role of identification ” . In The Social Psychology of Stereotyping and Group Life , Edited by: Spears , R. , Oakes , P. J. , Ellemers , N. and Haslam , S. A. 257 – 72 . Oxford : Basil Blackwell .
   Google Scholar
• Doosje , B. , Ellemers , N. and Spears , R. 1995 . Perceived intragroup variability as a function of group status and identification . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 31 : 617 – 26 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doosje , B. , Spears , R. and Ellemers , N. 1999 . The dynamic and determining role of ingroup identification: Responses to anticipated and actual changes in the intergroup status hierarchy (submitted for publication)
   Google Scholar
• Doosje , B. , Spears , R. and Koomen , W. 1993 . “ De invloed van de vergelijkingscontext op beoordelingen van groepen (The impact of comparison context on group judgements) ” . In Fundamentele Sociale Psychologie , Edited by: van der Kloot , W. , Buunk , B. , Ellemers , N. and van der Pligt , J. vol. VII , 125 – 37 . Tilburg : Tilburg University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Doosje , B. , Spears , R. and Koomen , W. 1995 . When bad isn't all bad: The strategic use of sample information in generalization and stereotyping . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 69 : 642 – 55 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellemers , N. 1993 . The influence of socio-structural variables on identity enhancement strategies . European Review of Social Psychology , 4 : 27 – 57 .
   Google Scholar
• Ellemers , N. , Barreto , M. and Spears , R. 1999 . “ Commitment and strategic responses to social context ” . In Social identity: Context, Commitment, Content , Edited by: Ellemers , N. , Spears , R. and Doosje , B. 127 – 146 . Oxford : Basil Blackwell .
   Google Scholar
• Ellemers , N. , Spears , R. and Doosje , B. 1997 . Sticking together or falling apart: Ingroup identification as a psychological determinant of group commitment versus individual mobility . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 72 : 617 – 26 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellemers , N. , van Knippenberg , A. and Wilke , H. 1990 . The influence of permeability of group boundaries and stability of group status on strategies of individual mobility and social change . British Journal of Social Psychology , 29 : 233 – 46 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellemers , N. , van Rijswijk , W. , Roefs , M. and Simons , C. 1997 . Bias in intergroup perceptions: Balancing group identity with social reality . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 23 : 186 – 98 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellemers , N. , Wilke , H. and Van Knippenberg , A. 1993 . Effects of legitimacy of low group or individual status on individual and collective identity management strategies . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 64 : 766 – 78 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haslam , S. A. and Oakes , P. J. 1995 . How context-dependent is the outgroup homogeneity effect? A response to Bartsch and Judd . European Journal of Social Psychology , 25 : 469 – 75 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haslam , S. A. , Oakes , P. J. , Turner , J. C. and McGarty , C. 1995 . Social categorization and group homogeneity: Changes in perceived applicability of stereotype content as a function of comparative context and trait favourableness . British Journal of Social Psychology , 34 : 139 – 60 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Islam , M. R. and Hewstone , M. 1993 . Dimensions of contact as predictors of intergroup anxiety, perceived out-group variability, and out-group attitude: An integrative model . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 19 : 700 – 10 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jetten , J. , Spears , R. , Hogg and Manstead , A. S. R. 1999 . Discrimination constrained and justified: The variable effects of group variability and ingroup identification (unpublished manuscript, University of Amsterdam)
   Google Scholar
• Jetten , J. , Spears , R. and Manstead , A. S. R. 1998 . Defining dimensions of distinctiveness: Group variability makes a difference to differentiation . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 74 : 1481 – 92 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones , E. E. , Wood , G. C. and Quattrone , G. A. 1981 . Perceived variability of personal characteristics in ingroups and outgroups: The role of knowledge and evaluation . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 7 : 523 – 8 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Judd , C. M. and Bartsch , R. A. 1995 . Cats, dogs and OH effect: A reply to Simon and to Haslam and Oakes . European Journal of Social Psychology , 25 : 477 – 80 .
   Google Scholar
• Judd , C. M. and Park , B. 1988 . Outgroup homogeneity: Judgments of variability at the individual and group levels . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 54 : 778 – 88 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly , C. 1989 . Political identity and perceived intragroup homogeneity . British Journal of Social Psychology , 28 : 239 – 50 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kunda , Z. 1990 . The case for motivated reasoning . Psychological Bulletin , 106 : 395 – 409 .
   Google Scholar
• Lambert , A. L. 1995 . Stereotyper and social judgment: The consequences of group variability? . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 68 : 388 – 403 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee , Y. T. and Ottati , V. 1995 . Perceived in-group homogeneity as a function of group membership salience and stereotype threat . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 21 : 610 – 19 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lemaine , G. 1974 . Social differentiation and social originality . European Journal of Social Psychology , 4 : 17 – 52 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leyens , J. P. , Yzerbyt , V. and Schadron , G. 1994 . Stereotypes and Social Cognition London : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Linville , P. W. and Fischer , G. W. 1998 . “ Group variability and covariation: Effects on intergroup judgment and behavior ” . In Intergroup Cognition and Intergroup Behavior , Edited by: Sedikides , C. , Schopler , J. and Insko , C. A. 123 – 50 . Mahwah, NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Linville , P. W. , Fischer , G. W. and Salovey , P. 1989 . Perceived distributions of the characteristics of in-group and out-group members: Empirical evidence and a computer simulation . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 57 : 165 – 88 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Linville , P. W. , Fischer , G. W. and Yoon , C. 1996 . Perceived covariation among features of ingroup and outgroup members: The outgroup covariation effect . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 70 : 421 – 36 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Linville , P. W. and Jones , E. E. 1980 . Polarized appraisals of outgroup members . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 38 : 689 – 703 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lippmann , W. 1922 . Public Opinion New York : Harcourt Brace .
   Google Scholar
• Lorenzi-Cioldi , F. 1993 . They all look alike, but so do we… sometimes: Perceptions of ingroup and outgroup homogeneity as a function of sex and context . British Journal of Social Psychology , 31 : 111 – 24 .
   Google Scholar
• Marques , J. M. and Paez , D. 1994 . The “Black Sheep effect”: Social categorization, rejection of ingroup deviates, and perception of group variability . European Review of Social Psychology , 5 : 37 – 68 .
   Google Scholar
• Marques , J. M. and Yzerbyt , V. Y. 1988 . The black-sheep effect: Judgmental extremity towards ingroup members in inter- and intra-group situations . European Journal of Social Psychology , 18 : 287 – 92 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGarty , C. and Penny , R. E. C. 1988 . Categorization, accentuation and social judgement . British Journal of Social Psychology , 27 : 147 – 57 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mlicki , P. and Ellemers , N. 1996 . Being different or being better? National stereotypes and identifications of Polish and Dutch students . European Journal of Social Psychology , 26 : 97 – 114 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mullen , B. , Brown , R. and Smith , C. 1992 . Ingroup bias as a function of salience, relevance and status: An integration . European Journal of Social Psychology , 22 : 103 – 22 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mullen , B. and Hu , L. 1989 . Perceptions of in-group and out-group variability: A meta-analytic integration . Basic and Applied Social Psychology , 10 : 233 – 52 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oakes , P. J. , Haslam , S. A. , Morrison , B. and Grace , D. 1995 . Becoming an in-group: Re-examining the impact of familiarity on perceptions of group homogeneity . Social Psychology Quarterly , 58 : 52 – 61 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ostrom , T. M. , Carpenter , S. L. , Sedikides , C. and Li , F. 1993 . Differential processing of ingroup and outgroup information . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 64 : 21 – 34 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ostrom , T. M. and Sedikides , C. 1992 . Outgroup homogeneity effects in natural and minimal groups . Psychological Bulletin , 112 : 536 – 52 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park , B. and Hastie , R. 1987 . The perception of variability in category development: Instance- versus abstraction-based stereotypes . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 53 : 621 – 35 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park , B. and Judd , C. M. 1990 . Measures and models of perceived group variability . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 59 : 173 – 91 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park , B. , Judd , C. M. and Ryan , C. S. 1991 . Social categorization and the representation of variability information . European Review of Social Psychology , 2 : 211 – 45 .
   Google Scholar
• Park , B. and Rothbart , M. 1982 . Perception of outgroup homogeneity and levels of social categorization: Memory for the subordinate attributes of ingroup and outgroup members . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 42 : 1051 – 68 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park , B. , Ryan , C. S. and Judd , C. M. 1992 . Role of meaningful subgroups in explaining differences in perceived variability for in-group and out-groups . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 63 : 553 – 67 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prentice , D. A. , Miller , D. T. and Lightdale , J. R. 1994 . Asymmetries in attachments to groups and to their members: Distinguishing between common-identity and common-bond groups . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 20 : 484 – 93 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pyszczynski , T. and Greenberg , J. 1987 . “ Toward an integration of cognitive and motivational perspectives on social inference: A biased hypothesis-testing model ” . In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology , Edited by: Berkowitz , L. Vol. 20 , 297 – 341 . San Diego, CA : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Quattrone , G. A. and Jones , E. E. 1980 . The perception of variability within in-groups and out-groups: Implications for the law of small numbers . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 38 : 141 – 52 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reicher , S. D. 1996 . “ Changing the context of social psychology ” . In Social Groups and Identities: Developing the Legacy of Henri Tajfel , Edited by: Robinson , W. P. 317 – 36 . Oxford : Butterworth-Heinemann .
   Google Scholar
• Rojahn , K. , Fischer , A. F. and Willemsen , T. M. 1997 . The social identities of female leaders in different cultural contexts . Feminism & Psychology , 7 : 183 – 207 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothgerber , H. 1997 . External intergroup threat as an antecedent to perceptions of in-group and out-group homogeneity . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 73 : 1206 – 12 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ryan , C. S. and Bogart , L. M. 1997 . Development of new group members' in-group and out-group stereotypes: Changes in perceived group variability and ethnocentrism . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 73 : 719 – 32 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ryan , C. S. , Judd , C. M. and Park , B. 1996 . Effects of racial stereotypes on judgments of individuals: The moderating role of perceived group variability . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 32 : 71 – 103 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sedikides , C. 1993 . Assessment, enhancement, and verification determinants of the self-evaluation process . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 65 : 317 – 38 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sedikides , C. 1997 . Differential processing of ingroup and outgroup information: The role of relative group status in permeable boundary groups . European Journal of Social Psychology , 27 : 121 – 44 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simon , B. 1992 . The perception of ingroup and outgroup homogeneity: Reintroducing the intergroup context . European Review of Social Psychology , 3 : 1 – 30 .
   Google Scholar
• Simon , B. 1995 . The perception of ingroup and outgroup homogeneity: On the confounding of group size, level of abstractness and frame of reference. A reply to Bartsch and Judd . European Journal of Social Psychology , 25 : 463 – 8 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simon , B. 1998 . “ Individuals, groups and social change: On the relationship between individual and collective self-interpretations and collective action ” . In Intergroup Cognition and Intergroup Behavior , Edited by: Sedikides , C. , Schopler , J. and Insko , C. A. 257 – 82 . Mahwah, NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Simon , B. and Brown , R. J. 1987 . Perceived intragroup homogeneity in minority–majority contexts . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 53 : 703 – 11 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simon , B. and Pettigrew , T. F. 1990 . Social identity and perceived group homogeneity: Evidence for the ingroup homogeneity effect . European Journal of Social Psychology , 20 : 269 – 86 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spears , R. , Doosje , B. and Ellemers , N. 1997 . Self-stereotyping in the face of threats to group status and distinctiveness: The role of group identification . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 23 : 538 – 53 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spears , R. , Doosje , B. and Ellemers , N. 1999 . “ Commitment and the context of social perception ” . In Social Identity: Context, Commitment, Content , Edited by: Ellemers , N. , Spears , R. and Doosje , B. 59 – 83 . Oxford : Basil Blackwell .
   Google Scholar
• Spears , R. , Jetten , J. and Doosje , B. (in press) . The (il)legitimacy of stereotyping and discrimination: Social reality constraints and other moderators In J. T. Jost & B. Major (Eds), The Psychology of Legitimacy: Emerging Perspectives on Ideology, Justice and Intergroup Relations
   Google Scholar
• Spears , R. and Manstead , A. S. R. 1989 . The social context of stereotyping and differentiation . European Journal of Social Psychology , 19 : 101 – 21 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stangor , C. and Ford , T. E. 1992 . Accuracy and expectancy confirming processing orientations and the development of stereotypes and prejudice . European Review of Social Psychology , 3 : 57 – 89 .
   Google Scholar
• Swann , W. B. 1987 . Identity negotiation: Where the two roads meet . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 53 : 1038 – 51 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tajfel , H. 1969 . Cognitive aspects of prejudice . Journal of Social Issues , 25 : 79 – 97 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tajfel , H. , ed. 1978 . Differentiation between Social Groups: Studies in the Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations London : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Tajfel , H. , Billig , M. G. , Bundy , R. F. and Flament , C. 1971 . Social categorization and intergroup behaviour . European Journal of Social Psychology , 1 : 149 – 77 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tajfel , H. and Turner , J. C. 1986 . “ The social identity theory of intergroup conflict ” . In Psychology of Intergroup Relations , Edited by: Worchel , S. and Austin , W. G. 7 – 24 . Chicago : Nelson-Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Turner , J. C. 1987 . “ A self-categorization theory ” . In Rediscovering the Social Group: A Self-categorization Theory , Edited by: Turner , J. C. , Hogg , M. A. , Oakes , P. J. , Reicher , S. D. and Wetherell , M. S. 42 – 67 . Oxford : Basil Blackwell .
   Google Scholar
• Turner , J. C. , Hogg , M. A. , Oakes , P. J. , Reicher , S. D. and Wetherell , M. S. 1987 . Rediscovering the Social Group: A Self-categorization Theory Oxford : Basil Blackwell .
   Google Scholar
• Turner , J. C. , Hogg , M. A. , Turner , P. J. and Smith , P. M. 1984 . Failure and defeat as determinants of group cohesiveness . British Journal of Social Psychology , 23 : 97 – 111 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Knippenberg , A. 1989 . “ Strategies of identity management ” . In Ethnic Minorities: Social-psychological Perspectives , Edited by: Van Oudenhoven , J. P. and Willemsen , T. M. 59 – 76 . Amsterdam : Swets and Zeitlinger .
   Google Scholar
• Van Knippenberg , A. and Van Oers , H. 1984 . Social identity and equity concerns in intergroup perceptions . British Journal of Social Psychology , 23 : 351 – 61 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wann , D. L. and Branscombe , N. R. 1990 . Die-hard and fair-weather fans: Effects of identification on BIRGing and CORFing tendencies . Journal of Sport and Social Issues , 14 : 103 – 17 .
   Google Scholar
• Wilder , D. A. 1978 . Reduction of intergroup discrimination through individuation of the out-group . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 36 : 1361 – 74 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilder , D. A. 1984 . Predictions of belief homogeneity and similarity following social categorization . British Journal of Social Psychology , 23 : 323 – 33 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Worchel , S. , Coutant-Sassic , D. and Grossman , M. 1992 . “ A developmental approach to group dynamics: A model and illustrative research ” . In Group Process and Group Productivity , Edited by: Worchel , S. , Wood , W. and Simpson , J. A. 181 – 202 . Newbury Park, CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Young , H. , van Knippenberg , A. , Ellemers , N. and de Vries , N. K. 1997 . The effects of group membership and social context on information organization . European Journal of Social Psychology , 27 : 523 – 37 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar