Crisis Intervention Training and Implicit Stigma Toward Mental Illness: Reducing Bias Among Criminal Justice Personnel

References

• Albarracin, D., Wang, W., Li, H., & Noguchi, K. (2008). Structure of attitudes: Judgments, memory, and implications for change. In W. D. Crano & R. Prislin (Eds.), Attitude and attitude change (pp. 19–39). Florence, KY: Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Asendorpf, J. B., Banse, R., & Mücke, D. (2002). Double dissociation between implicit and explicit personality self-concept: The case of shy behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(2), 380–393. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.2.380
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Avery, J., Dixon, L., Adler, D., Oslin, D., Hackman, A., First, M., et al. (2013). Psychiatrists' attitudes toward individuals with substance use disorders and serious mental illness. Journal of Dual Diagnosis, 9(4), 322–326. doi:10.1080/15504263.2013.835165
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Batastini, A. B., Bolanos, A. D., & Morgan, R. D. (2014). Attitudes toward hiring applicants with mental illness and criminal justice involvement: The impact of education and experience. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 37(5), 524–533. doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2014.02.025
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bell, J. P. (1985). Mental health in the 80s. American Journal of Social Psychiatry, 5(3), 50–53.
   Google Scholar
• Blair, I. V. (2002). The malleability of automatic stereotypes and prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 6, 242–261. doi:10.1207/S15327957PSPR0603_8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonfine, N., Ritter, C., & Munetz, M. R. (2014). Police officer perceptions of the impact of crisis intervention team (CIT) programs. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 37(4), 341–350. doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2014.02.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonta, J., Law, M., & Hanson, K. (1998). The prediction of criminal and violent recidivism among mentally disordered offenders: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 123(2), 123–142. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.123.2.123
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyd, J. E., Katz, E. P., Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. C. (2010). The relationship of multiple aspects of stigma and personal contact with someone hospitalized for mental illness, in a nationally representative sample. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 45(11), 1063–1070. doi:10.1007/s00127-009-0147-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brennan-Glynn, K. (2011). The theory of differential exposure and the illusory correlation phenomenon: Assessing police attitudes regarding people of different backgrounds. Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 3443751).
   Google Scholar
• Browning, S. L., Van Hasselt, V. B., Tucker, A. S., & Vecchi, G. M. (2011). Dealing with individuals who have mental illness: The crisis intervention team (CIT) in law enforcement. The British Journal of Forensic Practice, 13(4), 235–243. doi:10.1108/14636641111189990
   Google Scholar
• Callahan, L. (2004). Correctional officer attitudes toward inmates with mental disorders. The International Journal of Forensic Mental Health, 3(1), 37–54. doi:10.1080/14999013.2004.10471195
   Google Scholar
• Canada, K. E., Angell, B., & Watson, A. C. (2012). Intervening at the entry point: Differences in how CIT trained and non-CIT trained officers describe responding to mental health- related calls. Community Mental Health Journal, 48(6), 746–755. doi:10.1007/s10597-011-9430-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Compton, M. T., Bahora, M., Watson, A. C., & Oliva, J. R. (2008). A comprehensive review of extant research on crisis intervention team (CIT) programs. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 36(1), 47–55.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Compton, M. T., Esterberg, M. L., McGee, R., Kotwicki, R. J., & Oliva, J. R. (2006). Crisis intervention team training: Changes in knowledge, attitudes, and stigma related to schizophrenia. Psychiatric Services, 57(8), 1199–1202. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.57.8.1199
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conner, T., & Barrett, L. F. (2005). Implicit self-attitudes predict spontaneous affect in daily life. Emotion, 5(4), 476–488. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.5.4.476
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corrigan, P. (2004). How stigma interferes with mental health care. American Psychologist, 59(7), 614–625. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.59.7.614
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corrigan, P., Markowitz, F. E., Watson, A., Rowan, D., Kubiak, M. A. (2003). An attribution model of public discrimination towards persons with mental illness. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44, 162–179. doi:10.2307/1519806
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corrigan, P. W., Markowitz, F. E., & Watson, A. (2004). Structural levels of mental illness stigma and discrimination. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 30(3), 481–491.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corrigan, P. W., Michaels, P. J., Vega, E., Gause, M., Larson, J., Krzyzanowski,  , et al. (2014). Key ingredients to contact-based stigma change: A cross-validation. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, 37(1), 62–64. doi:10.1037/prj0000038
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corrigan, P. W., Morris, S. B., Michaels, P. J., Rafacz, J. D., & Rüsch, N. (2012). Challenging the public stigma of mental illness: A meta-analysis of outcome studies. Psychiatric Services, 63(10), 963–973. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.201100529
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corrigan, P. W., & O'Shaughnessy, J. R. (2007). Changing mental illness stigma as it exists in the real world. Australian Psychologist, 42(2), 90–97. doi:10.1080/00050060701280573
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corrigan, P. W., & Watson, A. (2002). Understanding the impact of stigma on people with mental illness. World Psychiatry, 1(1), 16–20.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Corrigan, P. W., & Watson, A. C. (2007). The stigma of psychiatric disorders and the gender, ethnicity, and education of the perceiver. Community Mental Health Journal, 43(5), 439–458. doi:10.1007/s10597-007-9084-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corrigan, P. W., Watson, A. C., Gracia, G., Slopen, N., Rasinski, K., & Hall, L. L. (2005). Newspaper stories as measures of structural stigma. Psychiatric Services, 56(5), 551–556. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.56.5.551
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corrigan, P. W., Watson, A. C., Heyrman, M. L., Warpinski, A., Gracia, G., Slopen, N., et al. (2005). Structural stigma in state legislation. Psychiatric Services, 56(5), 557–563. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.56.5.557
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crisp, A. H., Gelder, M. G., Rix, S., Meltzer, H. I., & Rowlands, O. J. (2000). Stigmatisation of people with mental illnesses. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 177, 4–7. doi:10.1192/bjp.177.1.4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crocker, A. G., Hartford, K., & Heslop, L. (2009). Gender differences in police encounters among persons with and without serious mental illness. Psychiatric Services, 60(1), 86–93. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.60.1.86
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dasgupta, N. (2013). Implicit attitudes and beliefs adapt to situations: A decade of research on the malleability of implicit prejudice, stereotypes, and the self-concept. In P. Devine & A. Plans (Eds), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 233–279). Burlington, VT: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Davidson, M. L., & Rosky, J. W. (2015). Dangerousness or diminished capacity? Exploring the association of gender and mental illness with violent offense sentence length. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 40(2), 353–376. doi:10.1007/s12103-014-9267-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deane, M. W., Steadman, H. J., Borum, R., Veysey, B. M., & Morrissey, J. P. (1999). Emerging partnerships between mental health and law enforcement. Psychiatric Services, 50(1), 99–101.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Desmarais, S. L., Livingston, J. D., Greaves, C. L., Johnson, K. L., Verdun-Jones, S., Parent, R., & Brink, J. (2014a). Police perceptions and contact among people with mental illnesses: Comparisons with a general population survey. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 20(4), 431–442. doi:10.1037/law0000023
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Desmarais, S. L., Van Dorn, R. A., Johnson, K. L., Grimm, K. J., Douglas, K. S., & Swartz, M. S. (2014b). Community violence perpetration and victimization among adults with mental illnesses. American Journal of Public Health, 104(12), 2342–2349. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2013.301680
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(1), 5–18. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.56.1.5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Devine, P. G., Forscher, P. S., Austin, A. J., Cox, W. T. L. (2012). Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention. Journal of Experimental and Social Psychology, 48(6), 1267–1278. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2012.06.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Devine, P. G., & Monteith, M. J. (1993). Affect, cognition, and stereotyping: Interactive processes in group perception. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., & Gaertner, S. L. (2002). Implicit and explicit prejudice and interracial interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(1), 62–68. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.82.1.62
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edwards, K. A. (2000). Stigmatizing the stigmatized: A note on the mentally ill prison inmate. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 44(4), 480–489. doi:10.1177/0306624X00444006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellis, H. A. (2014). Effects of a crisis intervention team (CIT) training program upon police officers before and after crisis intervention team training. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 28(1), 10–16. doi:10.1016/j.apnu.2013.10.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fazio, R. H. (1990). Multiple processes by which attitudes guide behavior: The MODE Model as an integrative framework. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 23, pp. 75–107). New York, NY: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Godfredson, J. W., Ogloff, J. P., Thomas, S. M., & Luebbers, S. (2010). Police discretion and encounters with people experiencing mental illness: The significant factors. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 37(12), 1392–1405. doi:10.1177/0093854810383662
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Godschalx, S. M. (1984). Effect of a mental health educational program upon police officers. Research in Nursing & Health, 7(2), 111–117. doi: 10.1002/nur.4770070207
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
   Google Scholar
• Gonzales, L., Chan, G., & Yanos, P. T. (in press). Individual and neighborhood predictors of stigmatizing attitudes toward mental illness in New York State. Stigma and Health.
   Google Scholar
• Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995). Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102(1), 4–27. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.102.1.4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1988). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(6), 1464–1480. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1464
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gross, N. R., & Morgan, R. D. (2013). Understanding persons with mental illness who are and are not criminal justice involved: A comparison of criminal thinking and psychiatric symptoms. Law and Human Behavior, 37(3), 175–186. doi:10.1037/lhb0000013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanafi, S., Bahora, M., Demir, B. N., & Compton, M. T. (2008). Incorporating crisis intervention team (CIT) knowledge and skills into the daily work of police officers: A focus group study. Community Mental Health Journal, 44(6), 427–432. doi:10.1007/s10597-008-9145-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hans-Joachim, H., & Wuld, R. (1999). Deinstitutionalization of psychiatric patients in central Europe. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 249(3), 115–122. doi:10.1007/s004060050075
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hansson, L., & Markström, U. (2014). The effectiveness of an anti-stigma intervention in a basic police officer training programme: A controlled study. BMC Psychiatry, 14. doi: 10.1186/1471-244X-14-55
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hemmens, C., Miller, M., Burton, V.S., & Milner, S. (2002). The consequences of official labels: An examination of the rights lost by the mentally ill and the mentally incompetent ten years later. Community Mental Health Journal, 38, 129–140. doi:10.1023/A:1014543104471
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hollander, Y., Lee, S. J., Tahtalian, S., Young, D., & Kulkarni, J. (2012). Challenges relating to the interface between crisis mental health clinicians and police when engaging with people with a mental illness. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 19(3), 402–411. doi:10.1080/13218719.2011.585131
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jennings, K. S., Cheung, J. H., Britt, T. W., Goguen, K. N., Jeffirs, S. M., Peasley,  , et al. (2015). How are perceived stigma, self-stigma, and self-reliance related to treatment-seeking? A three-path model. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, 38(2), 109–116. doi:10.1037/prj0000138
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kesic, D., Thomas, S. D. M., Ogloff, J. R. P. (2012). Estimated rates of mental disorders in, and situational characteristics of, incidents of nonfatal use of force by police. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemoil, 48, 225–232.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kessler, R. C., Chiu, W. T., Demler, O., & Walters, E. E. (2005). Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of twelve-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). Archives of General Psychiatry, 62(6), 617–627. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.617
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kimhi, R., Barak, Y., Gutman, J., Melamed, Y., Zohar, M., & Barak, I. (1998). Police attitudes toward mental illness and psychiatric patients in Israel. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 26(4), 625–630.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kobau, R., DiIorio, C., Chapman, D., & Delvecchio, P. (2010). Attitudes about mental illness and its treatment: Validation of a generic scale for public health surveillance of mental illness associated stigma. Community Mental Health Journal, 46(2), 164–176. doi:10.1007/s10597-009-9191-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krameddine, Y. I., DeMarco, D., Hassel, R., & Silverstone, P. H. (2013). A novel training program for police officers that improves interactions with mentally ill individuals and is cost-effective. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 4. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2013.00009
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lind, E. A., & Tyler, T. R. (1988). The social psychology of procedural justice. New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company.
   Google Scholar
• Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. (2001). Conceptualizing Stigma. Annual Review of Sociology, 27, 363–385. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.363
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Link, B. G., Phelan, J. C., Bresnahan, M., Stueve, A., & Pescosolido, B. A. (1999). Public conceptions of mental illness: Labels, causes, dangerousness, and social distance. American Journal of Public Health, 89(9), 1328–1333. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.89.9.1328
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Link, B. G., Struening, E. L., Neese-Todd, S., Asmussen, S., & Phelan, J. C. (2001). Stigma as a barrier to recovery: The consequences of stigma for the self-esteem of people with mental illnesses. Psychiatric Services, 52(12), 1621–1626. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.52.12.1621
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Link, B. G., Struening, E. L., Rahav, M., Phelan, J. C., & Nuttbrock, L. (1997). On stigma and its consequences: Evidence from a longitudinal study of men with dual diagnoses of mental illness and substance abuse. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 38(2), 177–190. doi:10.2307/2955424
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Livingston, J. D., Desmarais, S. L., Greaves, C., Parent, R., Verdun-Jones, S., & Brink, J. (2013). What influences perceptions of procedural justice among people with mental illness regarding their interactions with the police? Community Mental Health Journal, 50(3), 281–287. doi:10.1007/s10597-012-9571-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Livingston, J. D., Rossiter, K. R., & Verdun-Jones, S. N. (2011). ‘Forensic’ labelling: An empirical assessment of its effects on self-stigma for people with severe mental illness. Psychiatry Research, 188(1), 115–122. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2011.01.018
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• London, J., & Evans-Lacko, S. E. (2010). Challenging mental health-related stigma through social contact. European Journal of Public Health, 20(2), 130–132. doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckq014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matheus, C. C. (2011). Assessing interventions for reducing gender-based occupational stereotypes: A multi-method study comparing the implicit association test to indirect and explicit measures of stereotypes, and an examination of sex roles and entity versus incremental lay theories of social perception. Dissertation Abstracts International, Section A, 72.
   Google Scholar
• McGuire, A. B., & Bond, G. R. (2011). Critical elements of the crisis intervention team model of jail diversion: An expert survey. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 29(1), 81–94. doi:10.1002/bsl.941
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore, K., Stuewig, J., & Tangney, J. (2013). Jail inmates' perceived and anticipated stigma: Implications for post-release functioning. Self and Identity, 12(5), 527–547. doi:10.1080/15298868.2012.702425
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore, K., Stuewig, J., & Tangney, J. (2016). The effect of stigma on criminal offenders' functioning: A longitudinal mediational model. Deviant Behavior, 37(2), 196–218. doi: 10.1080/01639625.2014.1004035
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morabito, M. (2007). Horizons of context: Understanding the police decision to arrest people with mental illness. Psychiatric Services, 58(12), 1582–1587. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.58.12.1582
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morabito, M. S., Kerr, A. N., Watson, A., Draine, J., Ottati, V., & Angell, B. (2012). Crisis intervention teams and people with mental illness: Exploring the factors that influence the use of force. Crime & Delinquency, 58(1), 57–77. doi:10.1177/0011128710372456
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nordt, C., Rössler, W., & Lauber, C. (2006). Attitudes of mental health professionals toward people with schizophrenia and major depression. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 32(4), 709–714. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbj065
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Payne, K., Burkley, M. A., & Stokes, M. B. (2008). Why do implicit and explicit attitudes tests diverge? The role of structural fit. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94(1), 16–31. doi 10.1037/0022-3514.94.1.16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Penn, D. L, Kommana, S., Mansfield, M., & Link, B. G. (1999). Dispelling the stigma of schizophrenia: II. The impact of information on dangerousness. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 25(3), 437–446.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pescosolido, B. A., Martin, J. K., Long, J. S., Medina, T. R., Phelan, J. C., & Link, B. G. (2010). “A disease like any other”? A decade of change in public reactions to schizophrenia, depression, and alcohol dependence. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 1321–1330. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.09121743
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peterson, J., Skeem, J. L., Hart, E., Vidal, S., & Keith, F. (2010). Analyzing offense patterns as a function of mental illness to test the criminalization hypothesis. Psychiatric Services, 61(12), 1217–1222. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.61.12.1217
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peterson, J. K., Skeem, J., Kennealy, P., Bray, B., & Zvonkovic, A. (2014). How often and how consistently do symptoms directly precede criminal behavior among offenders with mental illness? Law and Human Behavior, 38(5), 439–449. doi:10.1037/lhb0000075
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pinfold, V. V., Huxley, P. P., Thornicroft, G. G., Farmer, P. P., Toulmin, H. H., & Graham, T. T. (2003). Reducing psychiatric stigma and discrimination: Evaluating an educational intervention with the police force in England. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 38(6), 337–344.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plant, E. A., & Devine, P. G. (2009). The active control of prejudice: Unpacking the intentions guiding control efforts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 640–652. doi:10.1037/a0012960
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pogrebin, M. R., & Poole, E. D. (1987). Deinstitutionalization and increased arrest rates among the mentally disordered. Journal of Psychiatry & Law, 15(1), 117–127.
   Google Scholar
• Prins, S. J., Skeem, J. L., Mauro, C., & Link, B. G. (2015). Criminogenic factors, psychotic symptoms, and incident arrests among people with serious mental illnesses under intensive outpatient treatment. Law and Human Behavior, 39(2), 177–188. doi:10.1037/lhb0000104
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Psarra, V., Sestrini, M., Santa, Z., Petsas, D., Gerontas, A., Garnetas, C., et al. (2008). Greek police officers' attitudes towards the mentally ill. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 31(1), 77–85. doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2007.11.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rao, H. H., Mahadevappa, H. H., Pillay, P. P., Sessay, M. M., Abraham, A. A., & Luty, J. J. (2009). A study of stigmatized attitudes towards people with mental health problems among health professionals. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 16(3), 279–284. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2850.2008.01369.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reavley, N. J., & Jorm, A. F. (2011). Stigmatizing attitudes towards people with mental disorders: Findings from an Australian national survey of mental health literacy and stigma. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 45(12), 1086–1093. doi: 10.3109/00048674.2011.621061
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robertson, A. G., Swanson, J. W., Frisman, L. K., Lin, H., & Swartz, M. S. (2014). Patterns of justice involvement among adults with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: Key risk factors. Psychiatric Services, 65(7), 931–938. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.201300044
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roe, D., Hasson-Ohayon, I., Derhi, O., Yanos, P. T., & Lysaker, P. H. (2010). Talking about life and finding solutions to different hardships: A qualitative study on the impact of narrative enhancement and cognitive therapy on persons with serious mental illness. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 198(11), 807–812. doi:10.1097/NMD.0b013e3181f97c50
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rüsch, N., Angermeyer, M. C., & Corrigan, P. W. (2005). Mental illness stigma: Concepts, consequences, and initiatives to reduce stigma. European Psychiatry, 20(8), 529–539. doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2005.04.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rydell, R. J., & McConnell, A. R. (2006). Understanding Implicit and explicit attitude change: A systems of reasoning analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(6), 995–1008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rydell, R. J., McConnell, A. R., Mackie, D. M., Strain, L. M. (2006). Of two minds: Forming and changing valence inconsistent attitudes. Psychological Science, 17, 954–958. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01811.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saporito, J. M., Ryan, C., Teachman, B. A. (2011). Reducing stigma toward seeking mental health treatment among adolescents. Stigma: Research and Action, 2(1), 9–21.
   Google Scholar
• Schomerus, G., Matschinger, H. & Angermeyer, M.C. (2006). Preferences of the public regarding cutbacks in expenditure for patient care: are there indications of discrimination against those with mental disorders? Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 41(5), 369–377. doi:10.1007/s00127-005-0029-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silverstone, P. H., Krameddine, Y. I., DeMarco, D., & Hassel, R. (2013). A novel approach to training police officers to interact with individuals who may have a psychiatric disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 41(3), 344–355.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skeem, J. L., Winter, E., Kennealy, P. J., Louden, J. E., & Tatar, J. I. (2014). Offenders with mental illness have criminogenic needs, too: Toward recidivism reduction. Law and Human Behavior, 38(3), 212–224. doi:10.1037/lhb0000054
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steadman, H. J., Deane, M., Borum, R., & Morrissey, J. P. (2000). Comparing outcomes of major models of police responses to mental health emergencies. Psychiatric Services, 51(5), 645–649. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.51.5.645
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stier, A., & Hinshaw, S. P. (2007). Explicit and implicit stigma against individuals with mental illness. Australian Psychologist, 42(2), 106–117. doi:10.1080/00050060701280599
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stull, L. G., McGrew, J. H., Salyers, M. P., & Ashburn-Nardo, L. (2013). Implicit and explicit stigma of mental illness: Attitudes in evidence-based practice. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 201(12), 1072–1079. doi:10.1097/NMD.0000000000000056
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swartz, J. A., & Lurigio, A. J. (2007). Serious mental illness and arrest: The generalized mediating effect of substance use. Crime & Delinquency, 53(4), 581–604. doi:10.1177/0011128706288054
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teller, J. S., Munetz, M. R., Gil, K. M., & Ritter, C. (2006). Crisis intervention team training for police officers responding to mental disturbance calls. Psychiatric Services, 57(2), 232–237. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.57.2.232
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teplin, L. A. (1983). The criminalization of the mentally ill: Speculation in search of data. Psychological Bulletin, 94(1), 54–67. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.94.1.54
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vermette, H. S., Pinals, D. A., & Appelbaum, P. S. (2005). Mental health training for law enforcement professionals. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 33(1), 42–46.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Violanti, J. M., Mnatsakanova, A., & Andrew, M. E. (2012). Behind the blue shadow: A theoretical perspective for detecting police suicide. International Journal of Emergency Mental Health, 14(1), 37–40.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Watson, A. C. (2010). Research in the real world: Studying Chicago Police Department's crisis intervention team program. Research on Social Work Practice, 20(5), 536–543. doi:10.1177/1049731510374201
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watson, A. C., Angell, B., Morabito, M., & Robinson, N. (2008). Defying negative expectations: Dimensions of fair and respectful treatment by police officers as perceived by people with mental illness. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 35(6), 449–457. doi:10.1007/s10488-008-0188-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watson, A. C., Corrigan, P. W., & Ottati, V. (2004). Police officers' attitudes toward and decisions about persons with mental illness. Psychiatric Services, 55(1), 49–53. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.55.1.49
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watson, A. C., Ottati, V. C., Morabito, M., Draine, J., Kerr, A. N., & Angell, B. (2010). Outcomes of police contacts with persons with mental illness: The impact of CIT. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 37(4), 302–317. doi:10.1007/s10488-009-0236-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• West, M. L., Vayshenker, B., Rotter, M., & Yanos, P. T. (2015). The influence of mental illness and criminality self-stigmas and racial self-concept on outcomes in a forensic psychiatric sample. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, 38(2), 150–157. doi:10.1037/prj0000133
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• West, M. L., Yanos, P. T., & Mulay, A. L. (2014). Triple stigma of forensic psychiatric patients: Mental illness, race, and criminal history. The International Journal of Forensic Mental Health, 13(1), 75–90. doi:10.1080/14999013.2014.885471
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• West, M. L., Yanos, P. T., Smith, S. M., Roe, D., & Lysaker, P. H. (2011). Prevalence of internalized stigma among persons with severe mental illness. Stigma: Research and Action, 1(1), 3–10. doi: 10.5463/sra.v1i1.9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wilson, A. B., Draine, J., Barrenger, S., Hadley, T., & Evans, A. J. (2014). Examining the impact of mental illness and substance use on time till re-incarceration in a county jail. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 41(3), 293–301. doi:10.1007/s10488-013-0467-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wundsam, K., Pitschel-Walz, G., Leucht, S., & Kissling, W. (2007). Psychische erkrankte und angehörige unterrichten polizeibeamte: Ein anti-stigma-projekt von ‘BASTA—Dem bündnis für psychisch erkrankte menschen’. Psychiatrische Praxis, 34(4), 181–187. doi:10.1055/s-2006-940065
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yanos, P. T., Lysaker, P. H., & Roe, D. (2010). Internalized stigma as a barrier to improvement in vocational functioning among people with schizophrenia-spectrum disorders. Psychiatry Research, 178(1), 211–213. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2010.01.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yanos, P. T., Roe, D., Markus, K., & Lysaker, P. H. (2008). Pathways between internalized stigma and outcomes related to recovery in schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Psychiatric Services, 59(12), 1437–1442. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.59.12.143
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar