The Use of Meta-Analysis to Compare and Select Offender Risk Instruments: A Commentary on Singh, Grann, and Fazel (2011)

References

• Ægisdóttir, S., White, M. J., Spengler, P. M., Maugherman, A. S., Anderson, L. A., Cook, R. S., …Rush, J. D. (2006). The meta-analysis of clinical judgment project: Fifty-six years of accumulated research on clinical versus statistical prediction. The Counseling Psychologist, 34, 341–382. doi: 10.1177/0011000005285875
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education (1999). Standards for educational and psychological testing. Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.
   Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: Author.
   Google Scholar
• American Psychological Association (2013). Specialty guidelines for forensic psychology. American Psychologist, 68, 7–19. doi: 10.1037/a0029889
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andrews, D. A., & Bonta, J. (1995). Level of service inventory – Revised: User's manual. Toronto, Canada: Multi-Health Systems.
   Google Scholar
• Andrews, D. A., Bonta, J., & Wormith, J. S. (2004). User's manual for the Level of Service/Case Management Inventory (LS/CMI): An offender management system. Toronto, Canada: Multi-Health Systems.
   Google Scholar
• Andrews, D. A., Bonta, J., & Wormith, J. S. (2006). The recent past and near future of risk and/or need assessment. Crime and Delinquency, 52, 7–27. doi: 10.1177/0011128705281756
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andrews, D. A., Bonta, J., Wormith, J. S., Guzzo, L., Brews, A., Rettinger, J., & Rowe, R. (2011). Sources of variability in estimates of predictive validity: A specification with Level of Service general risk and need. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 38, 413–432. doi: 10.1177/0093854811401990
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andrews, D. A., & Dowden, C. (2006). Risk principle of case classification in correctional treatment: A meta-analytic investigation. International Journal of Offender Treatment and Comparative Criminology, 50, 88–100. doi: 10.1177/0306624X05282556
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andrews, D. A., Guzzo, L., Raynor, P., Rowe, R. C., Rettinger, L. J., Brews, A., & Wormith, J. S. (2012). Are the major risk/need factors predictive of both female and male reoffending? A test with the eight domains of the Level of Service/Case Management Inventory. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 56, 113–133. doi: 10.1177/0306624X10395716
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Archer, R. P., Buffington-Vollum, J. K., Stredny, R. V., & Handel, R. W. (2006). A survey of psychological test use patterns among forensic psychologists. Journal of Personality Assessment, 87, 84–94. doi: 10.1207/s15327752jpa8701_07
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Austin, J. (2004). The proper and improper use of risk assessment in corrections. Federal Sentencing Reporter, 16, 1–6. doi: 10.1525/fsr.2004.16.3.194
   Google Scholar
• Barbaree, H. E., Seto, M. C., Langton, C. M., & Peacock, E. J. (2001). Evaluating the predictive accuracy of six risk assessment instruments for adult sex offenders. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 28, 490–521. doi: 10.1177/009385480102800406
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berg, M. T., & Huebner, B. M. (2011). Reentry and the ties that bind: An examination of social ties, employment, and recidivism. Justice Quarterly, 28, 382–410. doi: 10.1080/07418825.2010.498383
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boccaccini, M. T., Murrie, D. C., Clark, J. W., & Cornell, D. G. (2008). Describing, diagnosing, and naming psychopathy: How do youth psychopathy labels influence jurors? Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 26, 487–510. doi: 10.1002/bsl.821
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boer, D. P., Hart, S. D., Kropp, P. R., & Webster, C. D. (1997). Manual for the Sexual Violence Risk-20: Professional guidelines for assessing risk of sexual violence. Burnaby, Canada: Simon Fraser University.
   Google Scholar
• Bonta, J. (2002). Offender risk assessment: Guidelines for selection and use. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 29, 355–379. doi: 10.1177/0093854802029004002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonta, J. (1996). Risk-needs assessment and treatment. In A. T. Harland (Ed.), Choosing correctional options that work: Defining the demand and evaluating the supply (pp. 18–32). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
   Google Scholar
• Bonta, J., & Andrews, D. A. (2017). The psychology of criminal conduct (6th ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Bonta, J., & Wormith, S. J. (2007). Risk and need assessment. In G. McIvor & P. Raynor (Eds.), Developments in social work with offenders (pp. 131–152). Philadelphia, PA: Jessica Kingsley.
   Google Scholar
• Borum, R., Bartel, P., & Forth, A. (2006). Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth: Professional manual. Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
   Google Scholar
• Brennan, T., & Oliver, W. L. (2000). Evaluation of reliability and validity of COMPAS scales: National aggregate sample. Traverse City, MI: Northpointe Institute for Public Management.
   Google Scholar
• Byrne, J. M., & Pattavina, A. (2006). Assessing the role of clinical and actuarial risk assessment in an evidence-based community system: Issues to consider. Federal Probation, 70, 64–68.
   Google Scholar
• Campbell, M. A., French, S., & Gendreau, P. (2009). The prediction of violence in adult offenders: A meta-analytic comparison of instruments and methods of assessment. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 36, 567–590. doi: 10.1177/0093854809333610
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Card, N. A. (2012). Applied meta-analysis for social science research. New York, NY: Guilford.
   Google Scholar
• Catchpole, R. E. H., & Gretton, H. M. (2003). The predictive validity of risk assessment with violent young offenders: A 1-year examination of criminal outcome. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 30, 688–708. doi: 10.1177/0093854803256455
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Craig, L. A., Browne, K. D., Stringer, I., & Beech, A. (2005). Sexual recidivism: A review of static, dynamic, and actuarial predictors. Journal of Sexual Aggression, 11, 65–84. doi: 10.1080/13552600410001667733
   Google Scholar
• Cumming, G., & Finch, S. (2005). Inference by eye: Confidence intervals and how to read pictures of data. American Psychologist, 60, 170–180. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.60.2.170
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daffern, M. (2007). The predictive validity and practical utility of structured schemes used to assess risk for aggression in psychiatric inpatient settings. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 12, 116–130. doi: 10.1016/j.avb.2006.03.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dahle, K.-P. (2006). Strengths and limitations of actuarial prediction of criminal reoffence in a German prison sample: A comparative study of LSI-R, HCR-20, and PCL-R. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 29, 431–442. doi: 10.1016/j.ijlp.2006.03.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delaney, A., Bagshaw, S. M., Ferland, A., Manns, B., Laupland, K. B., & Doig, C. J. (2005). A systematic evaluation of the quality of meta-analyses in the critical care literature. Critical Care, 9, 575–582. doi: 10.1186/cc3803
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Douglas, K.S., Hart, S. D., Webster, C. D., Belfrage, H., Guy, L. S., & Wilson, C. M. (2014). Historical-Clinical-Risk Management-20, Version 3 (HCR-20 v3): Development and overview. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health, 13, 93–98. doi: 10.1080/14999013.2014.906519
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edens, J. F., Marcus, D. K., Lilienfeld, S. O., & Poythress, N. G., Jr. (2006). Psychopathic, not psychopath: Taxometric evidence for the dimensional structure of psychopathy. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 131–144. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.115.1.131
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edens, J. F., Marcus, D. K., & Vaughn, M. G. (2011). Exploring the taxometric status of psychopathy among youthful offenders: Is there a juvenile psychopathy taxon? Law and Human Behavior, 35, 13–24. doi: 10.1007/s10979-010-9230-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fazel, S., Singh, J. P., Doll, H., & Grann, M. (2012). Use of risk assessment instruments to predict violence and antisocial behaviour in 73 samples involving 24,827 people: Systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ, 345, e4692. doi: 10.1136/bmj.e4692
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gendreau, P., Goggin, C. E., & Law, M. A. (1997). Predicting prison misconducts. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 24, 414–431. doi: 10.1177/0093854897024004002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gendreau, P., Goggin, C., & Smith, P. (2002). Is the PCL-R really the “unparalleled” measure of offender risk? A lesson in knowledge cumulation. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 29, 397–426. doi: 10.1177/0093854802029004004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gendreau, P., Little, T., & Goggin, C. (1996). A meta-analysis of the predictors of adult offender recidivism: What works! Criminology, 34, 575–607. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.1996.tb01220.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gendreau, P., & Smith, P. (2007). Influencing the “people who count”: Some perspectives on the reporting of meta-analytic results for prediction and treatment outcomes with offenders. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 34, 1536–1559. doi: 10.1177/0093854807307025
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Genest, J., Frohlich, J., Fodor, G., & McPherson, R. (2003). Recommendations for the management of dyslipidemia and the prevention of cardiovascular disease: Summary of the 2003 update. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 169, 921–924.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glancy, G. D., & Saini, M. (2009). The confluence of evidence-based practice and Daubert within the fields of forensic psychiatry and the law. The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 37, 438–441.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldstein, H., & Healy, M. J. R. (1995). The graphical presentation of a collection of means. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series A (Statistics in Society), 158, 175–177.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenhalgh, T. (1997). How to read a paper: Papers that summarise other papers (systematic reviews and meta-analyses). British Medical Journal, 315, 672–675. doi: 10.1136/bmj.315.7109.672
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grove, W. M., Zald, D. H., Lebow, B. S., Snitz, B. E., & Nelson, C. (2000). Clinical versus mechanical prediction: A meta-analysis. Psychological Assessment, 12, 19–30. doi: 10.1037/1040-3590.12.1.19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gutierrez, L., Wilson, H. A., Rugge, T., & Bonta, J. (2013). The prediction of recidivism with Aboriginal offenders: A theoretically informed meta-analysis. Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 55, 55–99. doi: 10.3138/cjccj.2011.E.51
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guy, L. S., Douglas, K. S., & Hendry, M. C. (2010). The role of psychopathic personality disorder in violence risk assessments using the HCR-20. Journal of Personality Disorders, 24, 551–580. doi: 10.1521/pedi.2010.24.5.551
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanson, R. K. (2009). The psychological assessment of risk for crime and violence. Canadian Psychology, 50, 172–182. doi: 10.1037/a0015726
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanson, R. K., Bourgon, G., Helmus, L., & Hodgson, S. (2009). The principles of effective correctional treatment also apply to sexual offenders: A meta-analysis. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 36, 865–891. doi: 10.1177/0093854809338545
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanson, R. K., & Howard, P. D. (2010). Individual confidence intervals do not inform decision-makers about the accuracy of risk assessment evaluations. Law and Human Behavior, 34, 275–281. doi: 10.1007/s10979-010-9227-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanson, R. K., & Morton-Bourgon, K. E. (2009). The accuracy of recidivism risk assessments for sexual offenders: A meta-analysis of 118-prediction studies. Psychological Assessment, 21, 1–21. doi: 10.1037/a0014421
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanson, R. K., & Thornton, D. (2000). Improving risk assessments for sex offenders: A comparison of three actuarial scales. Law and Human Behavior, 24, 119–136. doi: 10.1023/A:1005482921333
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hare, R. D. (2003). Hare PCL-R: Technical manual (2nd ed.). Toronto, Canada: Multi-Health Systems.
   Google Scholar
• Harris, G. T., & Rice, M. E. (2007). Characterizing the value of actuarial violence risk assessments. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 34, 1638–1658. doi: 10.1177/0093854807307029
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harris, G. T., Rice, M. E., & Quinsey, V. L. (1993). Violent recidivism of mentally disordered offenders: The development of a statistical prediction instrument. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 20, 315–335.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harris, A., Phenix, A., Hanson, R. K., & Thornton, D. (2003). STATIC-99 coding rules (Revised – 2003). Retrieved from http://www.sgc.gc.ca (accessed August 23, 2012).
   Google Scholar
• Hart, S. D., & Cooke, D. J. (2013). Another look at the (im)-precision of individual risk estimates made using actuarial risk assessment instruments. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 31, 81–102. doi: 10.1002/bsl.2049
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hart, S. P., Kropp, P. R., & Hare, R. D. (1988). Performance of psychopaths following conditional release from prison. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 227–232. doi: org/10.1037/0022-006X.56.2.227
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hart, S. D., Michie, C., & Cooke, D. J. (2007). Precision of actuarial risk assessment instruments: Evaluating the margins of error' of group v. individual predictions of violence. British Journal of Psychiatry, 190, 60–65. doi: 10.1192/bjp.190.5.s60
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haslam, N., Holland, E., & Kuppens, P. (2012). Categories versus dimensions in personality and psychopathology: A quantitiative review of taxometric research. Psychological Medicine, 42, 903–920. doi: 10.1017/S0033291711001966
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Humphreys, L. G., & Swets, J. A. (1991). Comparison of predictive validities measured with biserial correlations and ROCs of signal detection theory. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 316–321. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.76.2.316
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson, R. L., & Hess, D. T. (2007). Evaluation for civil commitment of sex offenders: A survey of experts. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 19, 425–448. doi: 10.1177/107906320701900407
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janus, E. S., & Prentky, R. A. (2003). Forensic use of actuarial risk assessment with sex offenders: Accuracy, admissibility, and accountability. American Criminal Law Review, 40, 1443–1499.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kroner, D. G., & Mills, J. F. (2001). The accuracy of five risk appraisal instruments in predicting institutional misconduct and new convictions. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 28, 471–489. doi: 10.1177/009385480102800405
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kropp, P. R., Hart, S. D., Webster, C. D., & Eaves, D. (1999). Spousal assault risk assessment guide: User's manual. Toronto, Canada: Multi-Health Systems.
   Google Scholar
• Krueger, R. F., Watson, D., & Barlow, D. H. (2005). Introduction to the special section: Toward a dimensionally based taxonomy of psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 491–493. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.114.4.491
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lally, S. J. (2003). What tests are acceptable for use in forensic evaluations? A survey of experts. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 34, 491–498. doi: 10.1037/0735-7028.34.5.491
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Langton, C. M., Barbaree, H. E., Seto, M. C., Peacock, E. J., Harkins, L., & Hansen, K. T. (2007). Actuarial assessment of risk for reoffense among adult sex offenders: Evaluating the predictive accuracy of the Static-2002 and five other instruments. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 34, 37–59. doi: 10.1177/0093854806291157
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lipsey, M. W. (2003). Those confounded moderators in meta-analysis: Good, bad and ugly. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, 587, 69–81. doi: 10.1177/0002716202250791
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loucks, A. D., & Zamble, E. (2000). Predictors of criminal behavior and prison misconduct in serious female offenders. Empirical and Applied Criminal Justice Review, 1, 1–47.
   Google Scholar
• Loza, W., & Green, K. (2003). The Self-Appraisal Questionnaire – A self-report measure for predicting recidivism versus clinician-administered measures: A 5-year follow-up study. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18, 781–797. doi: 10.1177/0886260503253240
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loza, W., Villeneuve, D. B., & Loza-Fanous, A. (2002). Predictive validity of the Violence Risk Appraisal Guide: A tool for assessing violent offender's recidivism. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 25, 85–92. doi: 10.1016/S0160-2527(01)00092-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacCallum, R. C., Zhang, S., Preacher, K. J., & Rucker, D. D. (2002). On the practice of dichotomization of quantitative variables. Psychological Methods, 7, 19–40. doi: 10.1037/1082-989X.7.1.19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marcus, D. K., Lilienfeld, S. O., Edens, J. F., & Poythress, N. G. (2006). Is antisocial personality disorder continuous or categorical? A taxometric analysis. Psychological Medicine, 36, 1571–1581. doi: 10.1017/S0033291706008245
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGill, R., Tukey, J. W., & Larsen, W. A. (1978). Variations of box plots. The American Statistician, 32, 12–16. doi: 10.1080/00031305.1978.10479236
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monahan, J, & Steadman, H. J. (1996). Violent storms and violent people: How meteorology can inform risk communication in mental health law. American Psychologist, 51, 931–938. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.51.9.931
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murrie, D. C., Marcus, D. K., Douglas, K. S., Lee, Z., Salekin, R. T., & Vincent, G. (2007). Youth with psychopathy features are not a discrete class: A taxometric analysis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 714–723. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01734.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olver, M.E., Stockdale, K.C., & Wormith, J.S. (2009). Risk assessment with young offenders: A meta-analysis of three assessment measures. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 36, 329–353. doi: 10.177/0093854809331457
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olver, M. E., Stockdale, K. C., & Wormith, J. S. (2014). Thirty years of research on the Level of Service Scales: A meta-analytic examination of predictive accuracy and sources of variability. Psychological Assessment, 26, 156–176. doi: 10.1037/a0035080
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quinsey, V. L., Harris, G. T., Rice, M. E., & Cormier, C. A. (2006). Violent offenders: Appraising and managing risk (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
   Google Scholar
• Regier, D. A., Narrow, W. E., Kuhl, E. A., & Kupfer, D. J. (2011). The conceptual evolution of DSM-5. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Reimann, B. J., & Nussbaum, D. (2011). Predicting seclusion in a medium secure forensic inpatient setting. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health, 10, 150–158. doi: 10.1080/14999013.2011.578299
   Google Scholar
• Righthand, S., Prentky, R., Knight, R., Carpenter, E., Hecker, J. E., & Nangle, D. (2005). Factor structure and validation of the Juvenile Sex Offender Assessment Protocol (J-SOAP). Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 17, 13–30. doi: 10.1007/s11194-005-1207-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sackett, P. R., & Yang, H. (2000). Correction for range restriction: An expanded typology. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 112–118. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.85.1.112
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schenker, N., & Gentleman, J. F. (2001). On judging the significance of differences by examining the overlap between confidence intervals. The American Statistician, 55, 182–186. doi: 10.1198/000313001317097960
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Serin, R. C., & Amos, N. L. (1995). The role of psychopathy in the assessment of dangerousness. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 18, 231–238. doi: 10.1016/0160-2527(95)00008-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh, J. P., & Fazel, S. (2010). Forensic risk assessment: A metareview. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 37, 965–988. doi: 10.1177/0093854810374274
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh, J. P., Grann, M., & Fazel, S. (2011). A comparative study of violence risk assessment tools: A systematic review and metaregression analysis of 68 studies involving 25,980 participants. Clinical Psychology Review, 31, 499–513. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2010.11.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh, J. P., Desmarais, S. L., Hurducus, C., Arbach-Lucioni, K., Condemarin, C., et al. (2014). International perspectives on the practical application of violence risk assessment: A global survey of 44 countries. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health, 13, 193–206. doi: 10.1080/14999013.2014.922141
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skeem, J. L., & Monahan, J. (2011). Current directions in violence risk assessment. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20, 38–42. doi: 10.1177/0963721410397271
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, P., Cullen, F. T., & Latessa, E. J. (2009). Can 14,737 women be wrong? A meta-analysis of the LSI-R and recidivism for female offenders. Criminology and Public Policy, 8, 183–208. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-9133.2009.00551.x
   Google Scholar
• Tolman, A. O., & Mullendore, K. B. (2003). Risk evaluations for the courts: Is service quality a function of specialization? Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 34, 225–232. doi: 10.1037/0735-7028.34.3.225
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vera Institute of Justice, Center on Sentencing and Corrections (2010). National information on offender assessments, part II. Retrieved from http://www2.illinois.gov/idoc/Documents/National_Information_Offender_Assessments_PartII_Memo.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Viljoen, J. L., McLachlan, K., & Vincent, G. M. (2010). Assessing violence risk and psychopathy in juvenile and adult offenders: A survey of clinical practices. Assessment 17, 377–395. doi: 10.1177/1073191109359587
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viljoen, J. L., Mordell, S., & Beneteau, J. L. (2012). Prediction of adolescent sexual reoffending: A meta-analysis of the J-SOAP-II, ERASOR, J-SORRAT-II, and Static-99. Law and Human Behavior, 36, 423–438. doi: 10.1037/h0093938
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vincent, G. M., Guy, L. S., & Grisso, T. (2012). Risk assessment in juvenile justice: A guidebook for implementation. Systems and Psychosocial Advances Research Center Publications and Presentations. Paper 573. Retrieved from http://escholarship.umassmed.edu/psych_cmhsr/573
   Google Scholar
• Vincent, G. M., Paiva-Salisbury, M. L., Cook, N. E., Guy, L. S., & Perrault, R. T. (2012). Impact of risk/needs assessment on juvenile probation officers' decision making: Importance of implementation. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 18, 549–576. doi: 10.1037/a0027186
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vose, B., Cullen, F. T., & Smith, P. (2008). The empirical status of the Level of Service Inventory. Federal Probation, 72, 22–29.
   Google Scholar
• Walters, G. D. (2006). Risk-appraisal versus self-report in the prediction of criminal justice outcomes. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 33, 279–304. doi: 10.1177/0093854805284409
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walters, G. D. (2012). Taxometrics and criminal justice: Assessing the latent structure of crime-related constructs. Journal of Criminal Justice, 40, 10–20. doi: 10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2011.11.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walters, G. D., Knight, R. A., & Thornton, D. (2009). The latent structure of sexual violence risk: A taxometric analysis of widely used sex offender actuarial risk measures. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 36, 290–306. doi: 10.1177/0093854808330341
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walters, G. D., Ronen, T., & Rosenbaum, M. (2010). The latent structure of childhood aggression: A taxometric analysis of self-reported and teacher-rated aggression in Israeli schoolchildren. Psychological Assessment, 22, 628–637. doi: 10.1037/a0019779
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webster, C. D., Douglas, K. S., Eaves, D., & Hart, S. D. (1997). HCR-20: Assessing risk for violence (version 2). Burnaby, Canada: Simon Fraser University.
   Google Scholar
• Widiger, T. A., & Samuel, D. B. (2005). Diagnostic categories or dimensions? A question for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders–Fifth Edition. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 4, 494–504. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.114.4.494
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolfe, R., & Hanley, J. (2002). If we're so different, why do we keep overlapping? When 1 plus 1 doesn't make 2. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 166, 65–66.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong, S., & Hare, R. D. (2005). Guidelines for a psychopathy treatment program. Toronto, Canada: Multi-Health Systems.
   Google Scholar
• Wormith, J.S. (2014). The risks of communicating sexual offender risk. Journal of Threat Assessment and Management, 1, 162–178.
   Google Scholar
• Wormith, J. S., Olver, M. E., Stevenson, H. E., & Girard, L. (2007). The long-term prediction of offender recidivism using diagnostic, personality, and risk/need approaches to offender assessment. Psychological Services, 4, 287–305. doi: 10.1037/1541-1559.4.4.287
   Google Scholar
• Yang, M., Wong, S. C. P., & Coid, J. (2010). The efficacy of violence prediction: A meta-analysis comparison of nine risk assessment tools. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 740–767. doi: 10.1037/a0020473
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar