Graphic Violence as Moral Motivator: The Effects of Graphically Violent Content in News

REFERENCES

• Agerström, J., & Rooth, D. O. (2009). Implicit prejudice and ethnic minorities: Arab-Muslims in Sweden. International Journal of Manpower, 30, 43–55. doi:10.1108/01437720910948384
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arab-Muslim IAT (Version 03-13-2015) [Inquisit Script]. Retrieved from http://www.millisecond.com/download/library/ArabMuslimIAT/
   Google Scholar
• Aust, C. F., & Zillmann, D. (1996). Effects of victim exemplification in television news on viewer perception of social issues. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 73, 787–803. doi:10.1177/107769909607300403
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartsch, A., & Mares, M. L. (2014). Making sense of violence: Perceived meaningfulness as a predictor of audience interest in violent media content. Journal of Communication, 64, 956–976. doi:10.1111/jcom.12112
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartsch, A., Mares, M. L., Scherr, S., Kloß, A., Keppeler, J., & Posthumus, L. (2016). More than shoot-em-up and torture porn: Reflective appropriation and meaning-making of violent media content. Journal of Communication, 66, 741–765. doi:10.1111/jcom.12248
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borland, R., Wilson, N., Fong, G. T., Hammond, D., Cummings, K. M., Yong, H. H., … McNeill, A. (2009). Impact of graphic and text warnings on cigarette packs: Findings from four countries over five years. Tobacco Control, 18, 358–364. doi:10.1136/tc.2008.028043
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewer, M. B. (1999). The psychology of prejudice: Ingroup love and outgroup hate? Journal of Social Issues, 55, 429–444. doi:10.1111/0022-4537.00126
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carr, D. (2014, September 7). With videos of killings, ISIS sends medieval message by modern method. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://goo.gl/SjlRyk
   Google Scholar
• Cook, B. (2001). Over my dead body: The ideological use of dead bodies in network news coverage of Vietnam. Quarterly Review of Film & Video, 18, 203–216. doi:10.1080/10509200109361524
   Google Scholar
• Das, E., Bushman, B. J., Bezemer, M. D., Kerkhof, P., & Vermeulen, I. E. (2009). How terrorism news reports increase prejudice against outgroups: A terror management account. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 453–459. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2008.12.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eden, A., Tamborini, R., Grizzard, M., Lewis, R., Weber, R., & Prabhu, S. (2014). Repeated exposure to narrative entertainment and the salience of moral intuitions. Journal of Communication, 64, 501–520. doi:10.1111/jcom.12098
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elson, M., & Ferguson, C. J. (2014). Twenty-five years of research on violence in digital games and aggression: Empirical evidence, perspectives, and a debate gone astray. European Psychologist, 19, 33–46. doi:10.1027/1016-9040/a000147
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fahmy, S. (2005). Photojournalists’ and photo editors’ attitudes and perceptions: The visual coverage of 9/11 and the Afghan War. Visual Communication Quarterly, 12, 146–163. doi:10.1080/15551393.2005.9687454
   Google Scholar
• Fahmy, S., Bock, M. A., & Wanta, W. (2014). Visual communication theory and research: A mass communication perspective. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Ferguson, C. J. (2010). Blazing angels or resident evil? Can violent video games be a force for good? Review of General Psychology, 14, 68–81. doi:10.1037/a0018941
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferguson, C. J. (2015). Does media violence predict societal violence? It depends on what you look at and when. Journal of Communication, 65, E1–E22. doi:10.1111/jcom.12129
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fiske, S. T. (2000). Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination at the seam between the centuries: Evolution, culture, mind, and brain. European Journal of Social Psychology, 30, 299–322. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-0992(200005/06)30:3<299::AID-EJSP2>3.0.CO;2-F
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham, J., Nosek, B. A., Haidt, J., Iyer, R., Koleva, S., & Ditto, P. H. (2011). Mapping the moral domain. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101, 366–385. doi:10.1037/a0021847
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenwald, A. G., Nosek, B. A., & Banaji, M. R. (2003). Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: I. An improved scoring algorithm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 197–216. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.197
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grizzard, M. (2016). The psychology behind ISIL’s media usage. HDIAC Journal, 3, 24–29. Retrieved from https://www.hdiac.org/node/3860
   Google Scholar
• Grizzard, M., Tamborini, R., Lewis, R. J., Wang, L., & Prabhu, S. (2014). Being bad in a video game can make us morally sensitive. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 17, 499–504. doi:10.1089/cyber.2013.0658
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haidt, J. (2003). The moral emotions. In R. J. Davidson, K. R. Scherer, & H. H. Goldsmith (Eds.), Handbook of affective sciences (pp. 852–870). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Haidt, J., & Joseph, C. (2008). The moral mind: How 5 sets of innate intuitions guide the development of many culture-specific virtues, and perhaps even modules. In P. Carruthers, S. Laurence, & S. Stich (Eds.), The innate mind (Vol. 3, pp. 367–391). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hoffner, C., Buchanan, M., Anderson, J. D., Hubbs, L. A., Kamigaki, S. K., Kowalczyk, L., … Silberg, K. J. (1999). Support for censorship of television violence: The role of the third-person effect and news exposure. Communication Research, 26, 726–742. doi:10.1177/009365099026006004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hutcherson, C. A., & Gross, J. J. (2011). The moral emotions: A social–functionalist account of anger, disgust, and contempt. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 719–737. doi:10.1037/a0022408
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ibrahim, B. (2015). But ISIS kills more Muslim than non-Muslims! Retrieved from http://goo.gl/fO9WYR
   Google Scholar
• Inquisit 4 [Computer software]. (2015). Seattle, WA: Millisecond Software.
   Google Scholar
• Joeckel, S., Bowman, N. D., & Dogruel, L. (2012). Gut or game? The influence of moral intuitions on decisions in video games. Media Psychology, 15, 460–485. doi:10.1080/15213269.2012.727218
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaplan, J. (2006). Islamophobia in America?: September 11 and Islamophobic hate crime. Terrorism and Political Violence, 18, 1–33. doi:10.1080/09546550500383209
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keith, S., Schwalbe, C. B., & Silcock, B. W. (2006). Images in ethics codes in an era of violence and tragedy. Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 21, 245–264. doi:10.1207/s15327728jmme2104_3
   Google Scholar
• Krämer, N., Eimler, S. C., Neubaum, G., Winter, S., Rösner, L., & Oliver, M. B. (2016). Broadcasting one world: How watching online videos can elicit elevation and reduce stereotypes. New Media & Society. Advance online publication. doi:10.1177/1461444816639963
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kratzer, R. M., & Kratzer, B. (2003). How newspapers decided to run disturbing 9/11 photos. Newspaper Research Journal, 24, 34–47. doi:10.1177/073953290302400104
   Google Scholar
• Lee, S. A., Gibbons, J. A., Thompson, J. M., & Timani, H. S. (2009). The Islamophobia scale: Instrument development and initial validation. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 19, 92–105. doi:10.1080/10508610802711137
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lerner, J. S., Gonzalez, R. M., Small, D. A., & Fischhoff, B. (2003). Effects of fear and anger on perceived risks of terrorism a national field experiment. Psychological Science, 14, 144–150. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.01433
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lichtblau, B. (2015, December 17). Crimes against Muslim Americans and mosques rise sharply. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://goo.gl/r8S4mn
   Google Scholar
• Markey, P. M., Males, M. A., French, J. E., & Markey, C. N. (2015). Lessons from Markey et al. (2015) and Bushman et al. (2015): Sensationalism and integrity in media research. Human Communication Research, 41, 184–203. doi:10.1111/hcre.12057
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKinley, C. J., & Fahmy, S. (2011). Passing the “breakfast test”: Exploring the effects of varying degrees of graphicness of war photography in the new media environment. Visual Communication Quarterly, 18, 70–83. doi:10.1080/15551393.2011.574060
   Google Scholar
• Oliver, M. B., Hartmann, T., & Woolley, J. K. (2012). Elevation in response to entertainment portrayals of moral virtue. Human Communication Research, 38, 360–378. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2012.01427.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oswald, F. L., Mitchell, G., Blanton, H., Jaccard, J., & Tetlock, P. E. (2013). Predicting ethnic and racial discrimination: A meta-analysis of IAT criterion studies. Attitudes and Social Cognition, 105, 171–192. doi:10.1037/a0032734
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park, J., Felix, K., & Lee, G. (2007). Implicit attitudes toward Arab-Muslims and the moderating effects of social information. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 29, 35–45. doi:10.1080/01973530701330942
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pinker, S. (2011). The better angels of our nature: A history of violence and humanity. London, UK: Viking Penguin.
   Google Scholar
• Prinz, J., & Nichols, S. (2010). Moral emotions. In J. M. Doris (Ed.), The moral psychology handbook (pp. 111–146). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• PROCESS (Version 2.16) [Computer Software]. Retrieved from http://processmacro.org/
   Google Scholar
• Pumarlo, J. (n.d.). SPJ Ethics committee position papers: Reporting on grief, tragedy and victims. Retrieved from http://www.spj.org/ethics-papers-grief.asp
   Google Scholar
• Scharrer, E., & Blackburn, G. (2015). Images of injury: Graphic news visuals’ effects on attitudes toward the use of unmanned drones. Mass Communication and Society, 18, 799–820. doi:10.1080/15205436.2015.1045299
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. (1979). An integrative theory of inter-group conflict. In J. A. Williams, & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of inter-group relations (pp. 33–47). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
   Google Scholar
• Tamborini, R. (2013). A model of intuitive morality and exemplars. In R. Tamborini (Ed.), Media and the moral mind (pp. 43–74). New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Tamborini, R., Prabhu, S., Lewis, R. J., Grizzard, M., & Eden, A. (2016). The influence of media exposure on the accessibility of moral intuitions and associated affect. Journal of Media Psychology, Advance online publication. 1–12. doi:10.1027/1864-1105/a000183
   Google Scholar
• Tangney, J. P., Stuewig, J., & Mashek, D. J. (2007). Moral emotions and moral behavior. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 345–372. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Totten, S. (2004). The intervention and prevention of genocide: Sisyphean or doable? Journal of Genocide Research, 6, 229–247. doi:10.1080/1462352042000225967
   Google Scholar
• Van Der Molen, J. H. W. (2004). Violence and suffering in television news: Toward a broader conception of harmful television content for children. Pediatrics, 113, 1771–1775.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vettehen, P. H., Nuijten, K., & Beentjes, J. (2005). News in an age of competition: The case of sensationalism in Dutch television news, 1995-2001. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 49, 282–295. doi:10.1207/s15506878jobem4903_2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilder, B., & Burger, H. (Directors). (1945). Death mills [Motion picture]. United States: U.S. Army Signal Corps.
   Google Scholar
• Zillmann, D. (1998). The psychology and appeal of portrayals of violence. In J. Goldstein (Ed.), Why we watch: The attractions of violent entertainment. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Zillmann, D. (2002). Exemplification theory of media influence. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (2nd ed., pp. 19–41). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Zillmann, D. (2006). Empathy: Affective reactivity to others’ emotional experiences. In J. Bryant & P. Vorderer (Eds.), Psychology of entertainment (pp. 151–182). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Zillmann, D., & Gan, S. (1996). Effects of threatening images in news programs on the perception of risk to others and self. Medienpsychologie: Zeitschrift Für Individual- Und Massenkommunikation, 8, 317–318.
   Google Scholar