The Effects of Social Identities and Issue Involvement on Perceptions of Media Bias Against Gun Owners and Intention to Participate in Discursive Activities: In the Context of the Media Coverage of Mass Shootings

References

• Anand, S., & Krosnick, J. (2003). The impact of attitudes toward foreign policy goals on public preferences among presidential candidates: A study of issue publics and the attentive public in the 2000 U.S. Presidential election. Presidential Studies Quarterly, 33(1), 31–71. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0360491802250541
   Google Scholar
• Barnidge, M., & Rojas, H. (2014). Hostile media perceptions, presumed media influence, and political talk: Expanding the corrective action hypothesis. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 26(2), 135–156. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edt032
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnidge, M., Rojas, H., Beck, P. A., & Schmitt-Beck, R. (2020). Comparative corrective action: Perceived media bias and political action in 17 countries. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 32(4), 732–749. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edz043
   Google Scholar
• Barnidge, M., Sayre, B., & Rojas, H. (2015). Perceptions of the media and the public and their effects on political participation in Colombia. Mass Communication and Society, 18(3), 259–280. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2014.923463
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernhard, U., & Dohle, M. (2015). Corrective or confirmative actions? Political online participation as a consequence of presumed media influences in election campaigns. Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 12(3), 285–302. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2015.1048918
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Birkland, T. A., & Lawrence, R. G. (2009). Media framing and policy change after Columbine. American Behavioral Scientist, 52(10), 1405–1425. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764209332555
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blanco, D. V. (2016). The gun control debate: Why experience and culture matters. International Journal of Public Administration, 39(8), 620–634. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/01900692.2015.1028639
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bolsen, T., & Leeper, T. J. (2013). Self-interest and attention to news among issue publics. Political Communication, 30(3), 329–348. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2012.737428
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Branscombe, N. R., Ellemers, N., Spears, R., & Doosje, B. (1999). The context and content of social identity threat. In N. Ellemers, R. Spears, & B. Doosje (Eds.), Social identity, context, commitment, content (pp. 35–58). Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Briggs, S. R., Cheek, J. M., & Buss, A. H. (1980). An analysis of the self-monitoring scale. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38(4), 679. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.38.4.679
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carsey, T. M., & Layman, G. C. (2006). Changing sides or changing minds? Party identification and policy preferences in the American electorate. American Journal of Political Science, 50(2), 464–477. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2006.00196.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Celinska, K. (2007). Individualism and collectivism in America: The case of gun ownership and attitudes toward gun control. Sociological Perspectives, 50(2), 229–247. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1525/sop.2007.50.2.229
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chia, S. C., Yong, S. Y. J., Wong, Z. W. D., & Koh, W. L. (2007). Personal bias or government bias? Testing the hostile media effect in a regulated press system. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 19(3), 313–330. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edm011
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cho, H., & Boster, F. J. (2005). Development and validation of value-, outcome-, and impression-relevant involvement scales. Communication Research, 32(2), 235–264. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650204273764
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Choi, J., Yang, M., & Chang, J. J. (2009). Elaboration of the hostile media phenomenon: The roles of involvement, media skepticism, congruency of perceived media influence, and perceived opinion climate. Communication Research, 36(1), 54–75. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650208326462
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dillard, J. P., & Hunter, J. E. (1989). On the use and interpretation of the emotional empathy scale, the self-consciousness scales, and the self-monitoring scale. Communication Research, 16(1), 104–129. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/009365089016001005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eveland, W. P., & Shah, D. V. (2003). The impact of individual and interpersonal factors on perceived news media bias. Political Psychology, 24(1), 101–117. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/0162-895X.00318
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaertner, S. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (2000). Theoretical background and the common ingroup identity model. In S. Gaertner & J. F. Dovidio (Eds.), Reducing intergroup bias: The common ingroup identity model (pp. 33–52). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Gimpel, J. G. (1998). Packing heat at the polls: Gun ownership, interest group endorsements, and voting behavior in gubernatorial elections. Social Science Quarterly, 20(30), 634–648. Retrieved February 12, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/42863825
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greene, S. (1999). Understanding party identification: A social identity approach. Political Psychology, 20(2), 393–403. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/0162-895X.00150
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greene, S. (2004). Social identity theory and party identification. Social Science Quarterly, 85(1), 136–153. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0038-4941.2004.08501010.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gunther, A. C. (1992). Biased press or biased public? Attitudes toward media coverage of social groups. Public Opinion Quarterly, 56(2), 147–167. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1086/269308
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gunther, A. C., & Liebhart, J. L. (2006). Broad reach or biased source? Decomposing the hostile media effect. Journal of Communication, 56(3), 449–466. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2006.00295.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gunther, A. C., & Storey, J. D. (2003). The influence of presumed influence. Journal of Communication, 53(2), 199–215. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2003.tb02586.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hansen, G. J., & Kim, H. (2011). Is the media biased against me? A meta-analysis of the hostile media effect research. Communication Research Reports, 28(2), 169–179. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/08824096.2011.565280
   Google Scholar
• Hartmann, T., & Tanis, M. (2013). Examining the hostile media effect as an intergroup phenomenon: The role of ingroup identification and status. Journal of Communication, 63(3), 535–555. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12031
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes, A. F. (2018). Partial, conditional, and moderated mediation: Quantification, inference, and interpretation. Communication Monographs, 85(1), 4–40. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2017
   Google Scholar
• Ho, S. S., Binder, A. R., Becker, A. B., Moy, P., Scheufele, D. A., Brossard, D., & Gunther, A. C. (2011). The role of perceptions of media bias in general and issue-specific political participation. Mass Communication and Society, 14(3), 343–374. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2010.491933
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hwang, H., Pan, Z., & Sun, Y. (2008). Influence of hostile media perception on willingness to engage in discursive activities: An examination of mediating role of media indignation. Media Psychology, 11(1), 76–97. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/15213260701813454
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, B. T., & Eagly, A. H. (1989). Effects of involvement on persuasion: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 106(2), 290–314. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.106.2.290
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joslyn, M. R., & Haider-Markel, D. P. (2017). Gun ownership and self-serving attributions for mass shooting tragedies. Social Science Quarterly, 98(2), 429–442. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.12420
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keneally, M. (2019, October 1). There have been at least 21 deadly mass shootings in the US so far in 2019. Retrieved April 2, 2020, from https://abcnews.go.com/US/deadly-mass-shootings-month-2019/story?id=63449799
   Google Scholar
• Ker, J. (2016). Are active shootings temporally contagious? An empirical assessment. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 31(1), 48–58. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-015-9163-8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleck, G., Gertz, M., & Bratton, J. (2009). Why do people support gun control?: Alternative explanations of support for handgun bans. Journal of Criminal Justice, 37(5), 496–504. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2009.07.010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krosnick, J., & Telhami, S. (1995). Public attitudes toward Israel: A study of the attentive and issue publics. International Studies Quarterly, 39(4), 535–554. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.2307/2600805
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krosnick, J. A. (1990). Government policy and citizen passion: A study of issue publics in contemporary America. Political Behavior, 12(1), 59–92. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00992332
   Google Scholar
• Ladd, J. M. (2010). The role of media distrust in partisan voting. Political Behavior, 32(4), 567–585. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-010-9123-z
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, T. T. (2005). The liberal media myth revisited: An examination of factors influencing perceptions of media bias. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 49(1), 43–64. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1207/s15506878jobem4901_4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, T. T. (2010). Why they don’t trust the media: An examination of factors predicting trust. American Behavioral Scientist, 54(1), 8–21. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764210376308
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin, M.-C., & Haridakis, P. (2017). Media use in a political context: An intergroup communication perspective. In H. Giles & J. Harwood (Eds.), Encyclopedia of intergroup communication. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.013.405
   Google Scholar
• Lin, M.-C., Haridakis, P. M., & Hanson, G. (2016). The role of political identity and media selection on perceptions of hostile media bias during the 2012 presidential campaign. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 60(3), 425–447. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2016.1203316
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu, Y. (2019). Incidental exposure to political disagreement on Facebook and corrective participation: Unraveling the effects of emotional responses and issue relevance. International Journal of Communication, 13, 874–896. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/9235
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGinty, E. E., Webster, D. W., Jarlenski, M., & Barry, C. L. (2014). News media framing of serious mental illness and gun violence in the United States, 1997-2012. American Journal of Public Health, 104(3), 406–413. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301557
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melzer, S. (2009). Gun crusaders: The NRA’s culture war. New York University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mondak, J. J. (2010). Personality and the foundations of political behavior. Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Moy, P., Torres, M., Tanaka, K., & McCluskey, M. R. (2005). Knowledge or trust? Investigating linkages between media reliance and participation. Communication Research, 32(1), 59–86. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650204271399
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noelle-Neumann, E. (1974). The spiral of silence a theory of public opinion. Journal of Communication, 24(2), 43–51. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1974.tb00367.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oh, H. J., Park, J., & Wanta, W. (2011). Exploring factors in the hostile media perception: Partisanship, electoral engagement, and media use patterns. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 88(1), 40–54. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/107769901108800103
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perloff, R. M. (2015). A three-decade retrospective on the hostile media effect. Mass Communication and Society, 18(6), 701–729. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2015.1051234
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petty, R. E., Cacioppo, J. T., & Goldman, R. (1981). Personal involvement as a determinant of argument-based persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41(5), 847. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.41.5.847
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Porter, T. J. (2013). Moral and political identity and civic involvement in adolescents. Journal of Moral Education, 42(2), 239–255. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/03057240.2012.761133
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robbers, M. L. P. (2005). The media and public perception of criminal justice policy issues: An analysis of Bowling for Columbine and gun control. Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture, 12(2), 77–95. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.698.8735&rep=rep1&type=pdf
   Google Scholar
• Rojas, H. (2010). “Corrective” actions in the public sphere: How perceptions of media and media effects shape political behaviors. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 22(3), 343–363. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edq018
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schildkraut, J., & Elsass, H. J. (2016). Mass shootings: Media, myths, and realities. Praeger Books.
   Google Scholar
• Seate, A. A., Cohen, E., Fujioka, Y., & Hoffner, C. (2012). Exploring gun ownership as a social identity to understanding the perceived media influence of the Virginia Tech news coverage on attitudes toward gun control policy. Communication Research Reports, 29(2), 130–139. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/08824096.2012.667773
   Google Scholar
• Shavitt, S. (1990). The role of attitude objects in attitude functions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 26(2), 124–148. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(90)90072-T
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stephan, W. G., & Stephan, C. W. (2000). An integrated threat theory of prejudice. In S. Oskamp (Ed.), Reducing prejudice & discrimination (pp. 23–46). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
   Google Scholar
• Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. Worchel & W. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 7–24). Nelson-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Tsfati, Y. (2007). Hostile media perceptions, presumed media influence, and minority alienation: The case of Arabs in Israel. Journal of Communication, 57(4), 632–651. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2007.00361.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vallone, R. P., Ross, L., & Lepper, M. R. (1985). The hostile media phenomenon: Biased perception and perceptions of media bias in coverage of the Beirut massacre. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49(3), 577–585. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.49.3.577
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolpert, R. M., & Gimpel, J. G. (1998). Self-Interest, symbolic politics, and public attitudes toward gun control. Political Behavior, 20(3), 241–262. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024814624070
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wozniak, K. H. (2017). Public opinion about gun control post-Sandy Hook. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 28(3), 255–278. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0887403415577192
   Google Scholar
• Zhang, X. (2020). Perceived media bias and intention to engage in discursive activities for mental health: Testing corrective action hypothesis in the context of mass shooting news. Health Communication, 1–10. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2020.1808404
   Google Scholar