1,555
Views
1
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Are You Frightened? Children’s Cognitive and Affective Reactions to News Coverage of School Shootings

ORCID Icon

References

  • American Academy of Pediatrics. (2015). Why parent report? https://agesandstages.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Why-Parent-Report_12.5.14.pdf
  • Berinsky, A. J., Huber, G. A., & Lenz, G. S. (2012). Evaluating online labor markets for experimental research: Amazon.com’s mechanical Turk. Political Analysis, 20(3), 351–368. https://doi.org/10.1093/pan/mpr057
  • Beyens, I., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2019). Parental media mediation in adolescence: A comparative study of parent and adolescent reports. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 63(4), 716–736. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2019.1680071
  • Buijzen, M., Walma Van Der Molen, J. H., & Sondij, P. (2007). Parental mediation of children’s emotional responses to a violent news event. Communication Research, 34(2), 212–230. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650206298070
  • Bushman, B. J., & Anderson, C. A. (2009). Comfortably numb: Desensitizing effects of violent media on helping others. Psychological Science, 20(3), 273–277. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02287.x
  • Cantor, J., Mares, M. J., & Oliver, M. B. (1993). Parents’ and children’s emotional reactions to TV coverage of the Gulf War. In B. S. Greenberg & W. Gantz (Eds.), Desert storm and the mass media (pp. 325–340). Hampton Press.
  • Cantor, J., & Nathanson, A. (1996). Children’s fright reactions to television and films. Journal of Communication, 46(4), 139–152. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1996.tb01510.x
  • Cantor, J., & Riddle, K. (2014). Media and fear in children and adolescents. In D. A. Gentile (Ed.), media violence and children: A complete guide for parents and professionals (pp. 179–207). Praeger.
  • Cantor, J., & Sparks, G. G. (1984). Children’s fear responses to mass media: Testing some Piagetian predictions. Journal of Communication, 34(2), 90–103. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1984.tb02162.x
  • Cantor, J., & Wilson, B. J. (1984). Modifying fear responses to mass media in preschool and elementary school children. Journal of Broadcasting, 28(4), 431–443. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838158409386552
  • Cantor, J. (2002). Fear reactions and the mass media. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 287–307). Lawrence Erlbaum.
  • Cantor, J. (2008). Fright reactions to mass media. In J. Bryant & M. B. Oliver (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 213–245). Lawrence Erlbaum.
  • Cantor, J. (2006). Why horror doesn’t die: The enduring and paradoxical effects of frightening entertainment. In J. Bryant & P. Vorderer (Eds.), Psychology of entertainment (pp. 315–327). Lawrence Erlbaum.
  • Chen, L., & Shi, J. (2018). Reducing harm from media: A meta-analysis of parental mediation. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 96(1), 173–193. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077699018754908
  • Cheng, J. W., Mitomo, H., Otsuka, T., & Jeon, S. Y. (2016). Cultivation effects of mass and social media on perceptions and behavioural intentions in post-disaster recovery - The case of the 2011 great East Japan Earthquake. Telematics and Informatics, 33(3), 753–772. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2015.12.001
  • CloudResearch. (n.d.). https://www.cloudresearch.com/products/turkprime-mturk-toolkit/
  • Collier, K. M., Coyne, S. M., Rasmussen, E. E., Hawkins, A. J., Padilla-Walker, L. M., Erickson, S. E., & Memmott-Elison, M. K. (2016). Does parental mediation of media influence child outcomes? A meta-analysis on media time, aggression, substance use, and sexual behavior. Developmental Psychology, 52(5), 798–812. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000108
  • Comer, J. S., Deserisy, M., & Green, J. G. (2016). Caregiver-reports of internet exposure and posttraumatic stress among Boston-area youth following the 2013 marathon bombing. Evidence-Based Practice in Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 1(2–3), 86–102. https://doi.org/10.1080/23794925.2016.1203737
  • Dahmen, N. S. (2018, February 22). When the media cover mass shootings, would depicting the carnage make a difference? The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/when-the-media-cover-mass-shootings-would-depicting-the-carnage-make-a-difference-92140
  • Diliberti, M., Jackson, M., Correa, S., and Padgett, Z. (2019). Crime, violence, discipline, and safety in U.S. public schools: Findings From the School Survey on Crime and Safety: 2017–18 (NCES 2019-061). U.S. Department of Education.
  • Eveland, W. P., & Dunwoody, S. (2001). User control and structural isomorphism or disorientation and cognitive load? Communication Research, 28(1), 48–78. https://doi.org/10.1177/009365001028001002
  • Fahmy, S., Bock, M. A., & Wanta, W. (2014). Visual communication theory and research: A mass communication perspective. Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Flannery, D. J. (2018, February 16). Here’s how witnessing violence harms children’s mental health. The Conversation.
  • Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M., & Signorielli, N. (1980). The “mainstreaming” of America: Violence profile no. 11. Journal of Communication, 30(3), 10–29. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1980.tb01987.x
  • Gerbner, G. (1998). Cultivation analysis: An overview. Mass Communication and Society, 1(3–4), 175–194. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.1998.9677855
  • Graf, N. (2018, April 18). Majority of teens worry about school shootings, and so do most parents. Pew Research Center.
  • Hariman, R., & Lucaites, J. L. (2003). Public identity and collective memory in U.S. iconic photography: The image of “accidental Napalm.” Critical Studies in Media Communication, 20(1), 35–66. https://doi.org/10.1080/0739318032000067074
  • Harrison, K., & Cantor, J. (1999). Tales from the screen: Enduring fright reactions to scary media. Media Psychology, 1(2), 97–116. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532785xmep0102_1
  • Hayes, A. F. (2018). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach (2nd ed.). Guilford Publications.
  • Izard, C. E. (1992). Basic emotions, relations among emotions, and emotion-cognition relations. Psychological Review, 99(3), 561–565. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.99.3.561
  • Jockel, S., & Fruh, H. (2016). “The world ain’t all sunshine”: Investigating the relationship between mean world beliefs, conservatism and crime TV exposure. Communications, 41(2), 195–217. https://doi.org/10.1515/commun-2016-0001
  • Kellner, D. (2008). Media spectacle and the “massacre at Virginia Tech.” In B. Agger & T. W. Luke (Eds.), There is a gunman on campus: Tragedy and terror at Virginia Tech (pp. 29–54). Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
  • Kruuse, K., & Kalmus, V. (2016). Supernatural creatures, accidents, and war. Television & New Media, 18(3), 252–268. https://doi.org/10.1177/1527476416652692
  • Lemish, D., Holler, A., & Gotz, M. (2019). What is frightening in middle childhood? From Jaws to news. In M. Gotz, D. Lemish, & A. Hooler (Eds.), Fear in front of the screen: Children’s fears, nightmares, and thrills from TV (pp. 61–80). Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
  • Lenhart, A. (2013). The challenges of conducting surveys of youth. Pew Research Center.
  • Lin, J. T. (2017). Fear in virtual reality (VR): Fear elements, coping reactions, immediate and next-day fright responses toward a survival horror zombie virtual reality game. Computers in Human Behavior, 72, 350–361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.02.057
  • Lynch, T., & Martins, N. (2015). Nothing to fear? An analysis of college students’ fear experiences with video games. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 59(2), 298–317. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2015.1029128
  • Mazzei, P., & Jordan, M. (2019). “You can’t put it behind you”: School shootings leave long trail of trauma. New York Times.
  • McLeod, S. (2018, June 06). Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html
  • Morgan, M., Shanahan, J., & Signorielli, N.(2017). Cultivation theory: Idea, topical fields, and methodology. In P. Rössler, C. A. Hoffner, and L. Van Zoonen (Eds.), The international encyclopedia of media effects (Vol. 1, pp. 307–320). Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118783764.wbieme0039
  • Morgan, M., Shanahan, J., & Signorielli, N. (2015). Yesterday’s new cultivation, tomorrow. Mass Communication and Society, 18(5), 674–699. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2015.1072725
  • Muris, P., Merckelbach, H., Gadet, B., & Moulaert, V. (2000). Fears, worries, and scary dreams in 4- to 12-year-old children: Their content, developmental pattern and origins. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29(1), 43–52. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15374424jccp2901_5
  • Muris, P., Merckelbach, H., Ollendick, T. H., King, N. J., & Bogie, N. (2001). Children’s nighttime fears: Parent-child ratings of frequency, content, origins, coping behaviors and severity. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39(1), 13–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(99)00155-2
  • Nabi, R. L. (2009). Emotion and media effects. In R. L. Nabi & M. B. Oliver (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of media processes and effects (pp. 209–221). SAGE Publications.
  • Nathanson, A. I. (2001). Mediation of children’s television viewing: Working toward conceptual clarity and common understanding. Annals of the International Communication Association, 25(1), 115–151. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2001.11679002
  • Nathanson, A. I. (2002). The unintended effects of parental mediation of television on adolescents. Media Psychology, 4(3), 207–230. https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532785XMEP0403_01
  • Nikken, P., & Schols, M. (2015). How and why parents guide the media use of young children. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(11), 3423–3435. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-015-0144-4
  • OHCHR. (n.d.). Convention on the rights of the child. https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx
  • Paavonen, E. J., Roine, M., Pennonen, M., & Lahikainen, A. R. (2009). Do parental co-viewing and discussions mitigate TV-induced fears in young children? Child: Care, Health and Development, 35(6), 773–780. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.2009.01009.x
  • Pfefferbaum, B., Seale, T. W., Brandt, E. N., Pfefferbaum, R. L., Doughty, D. E., & Rainwater, S. M. (2003). Media exposure in children one hundred miles from a terrorist bombing. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry, 15(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.3109/10401230309085664
  • Pfefferbaum, B., Tucker, P., Pfefferbaum, R. L., Nelson, S. D., Nitiéma, P., & Newman, E. (2018). Media effects in youth exposed to terrorist incidents: A historical perspective. Current Psychiatry Reports, 20(2), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-018-0875-1
  • Piaget, J. (1966). The origins of intelligence in children. International University Press.
  • Poutvaara, P., & Ropponen, O. (2018). Shocking news and cognitive performance. European Journal of Political Economy, 51(C), 93–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2017.03.006
  • Rees, C. A., Lee, L. K., Fleegler, E. W., & Mannix, R. (2019). Mass school shootings in the United States: A novel root cause analysis using lay press reports. Clinical Pediatrics, 58(13), 1423–1428. https://doi.org/10.1177/0009922819873650
  • Riddle, K., Cantor, J., Byrne, S., & Moyer-Gusé, E. (2012). “People killing people on the news”: Young children’s descriptions of frightening television news content. Communication Quarterly, 60(2), 278–294. https://doi.org/10.1080/01463373.2012.669340
  • Rideout, V. (2016). Measuring time spent with media: The common-sense census of media use by US 8- to 18-year-olds. Journal of Children and Media, 10(1), 138–144. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2016.1129808
  • Roche, S. P., Pickett, J. T., & Gertz, M. (2016). The scary world of online news? Internet news exposure and public attitudes toward crime and justice. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 32(2), 215–236. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-015-9261-x
  • Romer, D., Jamieson, K. H., & Aday, S. (2003). Television news and the cultivation of fear of crime. Journal of Communication, 53(1), 88–104. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2003.tb03007.x
  • Salomon, G. (1984). Television is “easy” and print is “tough”: The differential investment of mental effort in learning as a function of perceptions and attributions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76(4), 647–658. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.76.4.647
  • Santana, A. D., Livingstone, R. M., & Cho, Y. Y. (2013). Print readers recall more than do online readers. Newspaper Research Journal, 34(2), 78–92. https://doi.org/10.1177/073953291303400207
  • Sarsour, N. (2018). Amid fear of shootings, parents and students count down till school’s out for summer. NBC news.
  • Saylor, C. F., Cowart, B. L., Lipovsky, J. A., Jackson, C., & Finch, A. J. (2003). Media exposure to September 11: Elementary school students’ experiences and posttraumatic symptoms. American Behavioral Scientist, 46(12), 1622–1642. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764203254619
  • Silva, J. R., & Capellan, J. A. (2019). The media’s coverage of mass public shootings in America: Fifty years of newsworthiness. International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, 43(1), 77–97. https://doi.org/10.1080/01924036.2018.1437458
  • Smith, S. L., & Moyer-Guse, E. (2006). Children’s fear responses to the war in Iraq. Media Psychology, 8(3), 213–237. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532785xmep0803_2
  • Smith, S. L., & Wilson, B. J. (2000). Children’s reactions to a television news story. Communication Research, 27(5), 641–673. https://doi.org/10.1177/009365000027005004
  • Storm-Mathisen, A. (2016). Grasping children’s media practices - theoretical and methodological challenges. Journal of Children and Media, 10(1), 81–89. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2015.1121888
  • Stretesky, P. B., & Hogan, M. J. (2001). Columbine and student perceptions of safety. Journal of Criminal Justice, 29(5), 429–443. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2352(01)00100-3
  • Sundar, S. S. (2000). Multimedia effects on processing and perception of online news: A study of picture, audio, and video downloads. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 77(3), 480–499. https://doi.org/10.1177/107769900007700302
  • Valkenburg, P. M. (2004). Children’s responses to the screen: A media psychological approach. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com
  • Valkenburg, P. M., Cantor, J., & Peeters, A. L. (2000). Fright reactions to television. Communication Research, 27(1), 82–99. https://doi.org/10.1177/009365000027001004
  • Van Den Bulck, J., & Van Den Bergh, B. (2000). The influence of perceived parental guidance patterns on children’s media use: Gender differences and media displacement. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 44(3), 329–348. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15506878jobem4403_1
  • Vossen, H. G. M., Piotrowski, J. T., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2017). The longitudinal relationship between media violence and empathy: Was it sympathy all along? Media Psychology, 20(2), 175–193. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2015.1121825
  • Walma Van Der Molen, J. H. W., & Bushman, B. J. (2008). Children’s direct fright and worry reactions to violence in fiction and news television programs. Journal of Pediatrics, 153(3), 420–424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2008.03.036
  • Walma Van Der Molen, J. H. (2004). Violence and suffering in television news: Toward a broader conception of harmful television content for children. Pediatrics, 113(6), 1771–1775. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.113.6.1771
  • Wilson, B. J., Martins, N., & Marske, A. L. (2005). Children’s and parents’ fright reactions to kidnapping stories in the news. Communication Monographs, 72(1), 46–70. https://doi.org/10.1080/0363775052000342526
  • Wong, A. (2019). When ‘back to school’ means back to mass-shooting fears. The Atlantic.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.