Cultural Dimensions of Fake News Exposure: A Cross-National Analysis among European Union Countries

References

• Adam‐Troian, J., Wagner‐Egger, P., Motyl, M., Arciszewski, T., Imhoff, R., Zimmer, F., & Prooijen, J. (2020). Investigating the links between cultural values and belief in conspiracy theories: The key roles of collectivism and masculinity. Political Psychology, 501–533. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12716
   Google Scholar
• Aguinis, H., Gottfredson, R. K., & Culpepper, S. A. (2013). Best-Practice recommendations for estimating cross-level interaction effects using multilevel modeling. Journal of Management, 39(6), 1490–1528. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206313478188
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allcott, H., & Gentzkow, M. (2017). Social Media and Fake News in the 2016 Election. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 31(2), 211–236. doi:10.1257/jep.31.2.211.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baek, Y. M., Kang, H., & Kim, S. (2019). Fake news should be regulated because it influences both “Others” and “Me”: How and why the influence of presumed influence model should be extended. Mass Communication and Society, 22(3), 301–323. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2018.1562076
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bakir, V., & McStay, A. (2017). Fake news and the economy of emotions. Digital Journalism, 6(2), 154–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2017.1345645
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baptista, J. P., & Gradim, A. (2020). Understanding fake news consumption: A review. Social Sciences, 9(10), 185. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci9100185
   Google Scholar
• Barnidge, M., & Peacock, C. (2019). A third wave of selective exposure research? The challenges posed by hyperpartisan news on social media. Media and Communication, 7(3), 4–7. https://doi.org/10.17645/mac.v7i3.2257
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ceron, W., De-Lima-Santos, M.-F., & Quiles, M. G. (2021). Fake news agenda in the era of COVID-19: Identifying trends through fact-checking content. Online Social Networks and Media, 21, 100–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.osnem.2020.100116
   Google Scholar
• Chatterjee, S., & Simonoff, J. (2013). Handbook of regression analysis. John Wiley & Sons.
   Google Scholar
• Cheng, Y., & Chen, Z. F. (2020). The influence of presumed fake news influence: Examining public support for corporate corrective response, media literacy interventions, and governmental regulation. Mass Communication and Society, 23(5), 705–729. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2020.1750656
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Choi, S. M., Kim, Y., Sung, Y., & Sohn, D. (2011). Bridging or bonding? A cross-cultural study of social relationships in social networking sites. Information, Communication & Society, 14(1), 107–129. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691181003792624
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Debus, M. E., Kleinmann, M., König, C. J., & Winkler, S. (2019). Being tough versus tender: The impact of country‐level and individual masculinity orientations as moderators of the relationship between job insecurity and job attitudes. Applied Psychology, 69(3), 616–652. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12189
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Mooij, M. (2014). Human and mediated communication around the world: A comprehensive review and analysis. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-01249-0
   Google Scholar
• Dhanani, L. Y., & Franz, B. (2020). The role of news consumption and trust in public health leadership in shaping COVID-19 knowledge and prejudice. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 560828. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.560828
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Egelhofer, J. L., & Lecheler, S. (2019). Fake news as a two-dimensional phenomenon: A framework and research agenda. Annals of the International Communication Association, 43(2), 97–116. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2019.1602782
   Google Scholar
• Elff, M., Heisig, J. P., Schaeffer, M., & Shikano, S. (2020). Multilevel analysis with few clusters: Improving likelihood-based methods to provide unbiased estimates and accurate inference. British Journal of Political Science, 51(1), 412–426. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0007123419000097
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Esser, F., & Hanitzsch, T. (2012). Organizing and managing comparative research projects across nations. In I. Volkmer (Ed.), The handbook of global media research (pp. 521–532). Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118255278.ch30
   Google Scholar
• European Commission. (2018a). Flash Eurobarometer 464 (Fake news and disinformation online). TNS opinion, GESIS Data Archive, Cologne. https://doi.org/10.4232/1.13019
   Google Scholar
• European Commission. (2018b). Tackling online disinformation: A European approach. COM (2018) 236 final. https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/news/communication-tackling-online-disinformation-european-approach
   Google Scholar
• European Commission. (2018c). A multi-dimensional approach to disinformation. Report of the independent high-level group on fake news and online disinformation. Directorate-General for Communication Networks, Content and Technology. https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/news/final-report-high-level-expert-group-fake-news-and-online-disinformation
   Google Scholar
• Eveland, W. P., Song, H., & Beck, P. A. (2015). Cultural variations in the relationships among network political agreement, political discussion frequency, and voting turnout. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 27(4), 461–480. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edv007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farkas, J., & Schou, J. (2018). Fake news as a floating signifier: Hegemony, antagonism and the politics of falsehood. Javnost - The Public, 25(3), 298–314. https://doi.org/10.1080/13183222.2018.1463047
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fletcher, R., Cornia, A., Graves, L., & Nielsen, R. K. (2018). Measuring the reach of ‘fake news’ and online disinformation in Europe. Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism. https://www.digitalnewsreport.org/publications/2018/measuring-reach-fake-news-online-disinformation-europe/
   Google Scholar
• Gil de Zúñiga, H., & Diehl, T. (2018). News finds me perception and democracy: Effects on political knowledge, political interest, and voting. New Media & Society, 21(6), 1253–1271. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818817548
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Prentice Hall.
   Google Scholar
• Hameleers, M., Van der Meer, T. G. L. A., & Brosius, A. (2020). Feeling “disinformed” lowers compliance with COVID-19 guidelines: Evidence from the US, UK, Netherlands and Germany. Harvard Kennedy School (HKS) Misinformation Review. https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-023
   Google Scholar
• Hanusch, F. (2008, June 25-27). The Hofstedian approach: Suggestions for a conceptual development of comparative journalism studies [ Conference session]. Proceedings of the Comparative Journalism Studies Conference: Approaches, methods and paradigms. University of Tasmania, Australia. https://eprints.qut.edu.au/74063/
   Google Scholar
• Heck, R. H., Thomas, S. L., & Tabata, L. N. (2014). Multilevel and longitudinal modeling with IBM SPSS. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Heisig, J. P., & Schaeffer, M. (2019). Why you should always include a random slope for the lower-level variable involved in a cross-level interaction. European Sociological Review, 35(2), 258–279. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcy053
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values. Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations (2nd ed.). Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Hofstede, G., & Bond, M. H. (1988). The Confucius connection: From cultural roots to economic growth. Organizational Dynamics, 16(4), 5–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/0090-2616(88)90009-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Hox, J. J. (2010). Multilevel analysis: Techniques and applications (2nd ed.). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Huber, B., Barnidge, M., Gil de Zúñiga, H., & Liu, J. (2019). Fostering public trust in science: The role of social media. Public Understanding of Science, 28(7), 759–777. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963662519869097
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Humprecht, E., Esser, F., & Van Aelst, P. (2020). Resilience to online disinformation: A framework for cross-national comparative research. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 25(3), 493–516. https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161219900126
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, H. K., Ahn, J., Atkinson, L., & Kahlor, L. A. (2020). Effects of COVID-19 misinformation on information seeking, avoidance, and processing: A multicountry comparative study. Science Communication, 42(5), 586–615. https://doi.org/10.1177/1075547020959670
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawrie, S. I., Eom, K., Moza, D., Gavreliuc, A., & Kim, H. S. (2019). Cultural variability in the association between age and well-being: The role of uncertainty avoidance. Psychological Science, 31(1), 51–64. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797619887348
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazer, D., Baum, M. A., Benkler, Y., Berinsky, A. J., Greenhill, K. M., Menczer, F., Metzger, M. J., Nyhan, B., Pennycook, G., Rothschild, D., Schudson, M., Sloman, S. A., Sunstein, C. R., Thorson, E. A., Watts, D. J., & Zittrain, J. L. (2018). The science of fake news. Science, 359(6380), 1094–1096. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aao2998
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, T. (2019). The global rise of “fake news” and the threat to democratic elections in the USA. Public Administration and Policy: An Asia-Pacific Journal, 22(1), 15–24. https://doi.org/10.1108/pap-04-2019-0008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lima Quintanilha, T., Torres da Silva, M., & Lapa, T. (2019). Fake news and its impact on trust in the news. Using the Portuguese case to establish lines of differentiation. Communication & Society, 32(3), 17–33. https://doi.org/10.15581/003.32.3.17-33
   Google Scholar
• Mari, S., Gil de Zúñiga, H., Suerdem, A., Hanke, K., Brown, G., Vilar, R., Boer, D., & Bilewicz, M. (2021). Conspiracy theories and institutional trust: Examining the role of uncertainty avoidance and active social media use. Political Psychology, 43(2), 277–296. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12754
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McSweeney, B., Brown, D., & Iliopoulou, S. (2016). Claiming too much, delivering too little: Testing some of Hofstede’s generalisations. The Irish Journal of Management, 35(1), 34–57. https://doi.org/10.1515/ijm-2016-0003
   Google Scholar
• Minkov, M. (2018). A revision of Hofstede’s model of national culture: Old evidence and new data from 56 countries. Cross-Cultural and Strategic Management, 25(2), 231–256. https://doi.org/10.1108/CCSM-03-2017-0033
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell, A., Jurkowitz, M., Baxter Oliphant, J., & Shearer, E. (2020, July 30). Americans who mainly get their news on social media are less engaged, less knowledgeable. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/journalism/2020/07/30/americans-who-mainly-get-their-news-on-social-media-are-less-engaged-less-knowledgeable/
   Google Scholar
• Nelson, J. L., & Taneja, H. (2018). The small, disloyal fake news audience: The role of audience availability in fake news consumption. New Media & Society, 20(10), 3720–3737. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818758715
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newman, N., Fletcher, R., Kalogeropoulos, A., Levy, D. A. L., & Nielsen, R. K. (2018). Reuters digital news report 2018. Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism. http://media.digitalnewsreport.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/digital-news-report-2018.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Ng, R., & Lim-Soh, J. W. (2020). Ageism linked to culture, not demographics: evidence from an 8-billion-word corpus across 20 countries. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 76(9), 1791–1798. http://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbaa181
   Google Scholar
• Nguyen, A., & Catalan-Matamoros, D. (2020). Digital mis/disinformation and public engagement with health and science controversies: Fresh perspectives from Covid-19. Media and Communication, 8(2), 323–328. https://doi.org/10.17645/mac.v8i2.3352
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nielsen, R. K., & Graves, L. (2017). News you don’t believe: Audience perspectives on fake news. Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism. https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2017-10/Nielsen&Graves_factsheet_1710v3_FINAL_download.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Nisbet, E. C., Mortenson, C., & Li, Q. (2021). The presumed influence of election misinformation on others reduces our own satisfaction with democracy. Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review. https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-59
   Google Scholar
• Ognyanova, K., Lazer, D., Robertson, R. E., & Wilson, C. (2020). Misinformation in action: Fake news exposure is linked to lower trust in media, higher trust in government when your side is in power. Harvard Kennedy School (HKS) Misinformation Review. https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-024
   Google Scholar
• Osmundsen, M., Bor, A., Vahlstrup, P. B., Bechmann, A., & Petersen, M. B. (2021). Partisan polarization is the primary psychological motivation behind political fake news sharing on Twitter. American Political Science Review, 115(3), 999–1015. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0003055421000290
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park, M., Park, J., Baek, Y. M., & Macy, M. (2017). Cultural values and cross-cultural video consumption on YouTube. PLOS ONE, 12(5), e0177865. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0177865
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pennycook, G., & Rand, D. G. (2019). Lazy, not biased: Susceptibility to partisan fake news is better explained by lack of reasoning than by motivated reasoning. Cognition, 188, 39–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2018.06.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prior, M. (2009). Improving media effects research through better measurement of news exposure. The Journal of Politics, 71(3), 893–908. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022381609090781
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qu, W. G., & Yang, Z. (2015). The effect of uncertainty avoidance and social trust on supply chain collaboration. Journal of Business Research, 68(5), 911–918. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2014.09.017
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rampersad, G., & Althiyabi, T. (2019). Fake news: Acceptance by demographics and culture on social media. Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 17(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2019.1686676
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. S. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods (2nd ed.). Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Reuter, C., Hartwig, K., Kirchner, J., & Schlegel, N. (2019, February 24-27). Fake news perception in Germany: A representative study of people’s attitudes and approaches to counteract disinformation. 14th International Conference on Wirtschaftsinformatik, Siegen, Germany (pp. 1069–1083). https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/301380688.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Sample, C., McAlaney, J., Bakdash, J. Z., & Thackray, H. (2018). A cultural exploration of social media manipulators. Journal of Information Warfare, 17(4), 56–71. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26783827
   Google Scholar
• Schiffrin, A. (2020, October 19). The infodemic. The Nation, 311(8), 58–62. https://www.thenation.com/article/culture/victor-pickard-democracy-without-journalism-review/
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schulze, H. (2020). Who uses right-wing alternative online media? An exploration of audience characteristics. Politics and Governance, 8(3), 6–18. https://doi.org/10.17645/pag.v8i3.2925
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shen, F., & Liang, H. (2014). Cultural difference, social values, or political systems? Predicting willingness to engage in online political discussion in 75 societies. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 27(1), 111–124. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edu012
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spohr, D. (2017). Fake news and ideological polarization. Business Information Review, 34(3), 150–160. https://doi.org/10.1177/0266382117722446
   Google Scholar
• Stegmueller, D. (2013). How many countries for multilevel modeling? A comparison of frequentist and bayesian approaches. American Journal of Political Science, 57(3), 748–761. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strauss, N., Huber, B., & Gil de Zúñiga, H. (2020). “Yes, I saw it – But didn’t read it … ”: A cross-country study, exploring relationships between incidental news exposure and news use across platforms. Digital Journalism, 8(9), 1181–1205. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2020.1832130
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stump, R. L., & Gong, W. (2020). Social media adoption and national culture: The dominant and nuanced effect of individualism-collectivism. Journal of Business & Management, 26(2), 1–31. https://doi.org/10.6347/JBM.202009_26(2).0001
   Google Scholar
• Tandoc, E. C. (2019). The facts of fake news: A research review. Sociology Compass, 13(9), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12724
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tandoc, E. C., Lim, Z. W., & Ling, R. (2018). Defining “fake news.” Digital Journalism, 6(2), 137–153. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2017.1360143
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tong, C., Gill, H., Li, J., Valenzuela, S., & Rojas, H. (2020). “Fake news is anything they say!” — Conceptualization and weaponization of fake news among the American public. Mass Communication and Society, 23(5), 755–778. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2020.1789661
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Törnberg, P. (2018). Echo chambers and viral misinformation: Modeling fake news as complex contagion. PLOS ONE, 13(9), e0203958. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203958
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsfati, Y., & Ariely, G. (2013). Individual and contextual correlates of trust in media across 44 countries. Communication Research, 41(6), 760–782. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650213485972
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsfati, Y., Boomgaarden, H. G., Strömbäck, J., Vliegenthart, R., Damstra, A., & Lindgren, E. (2020). Causes and consequences of mainstream media dissemination of fake news: Literature review and synthesis. Annals of the International Communication Association, 44(2), 157–173. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2020.1759443
   Google Scholar
• Urman, A. (2019). Context matters: Political polarization on Twitter from a comparative perspective. Media, Culture & Society, 42(6), 857–879. https://doi.org/10.1177/0163443719876541
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uscinski, J. E., Enders, A. M., Klofstad, C. A., Seelig, M. I., Funchion, J. R., Everett, C., Wuchty, S., Premaratne, K., & Murthi, M. N. (2020). Why do people believe COVID-19 conspiracy theories? Harvard Kennedy School (HKS) Misinformation Review. https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-015
   Google Scholar
• Van der Linden, S., Panagopoulos, C., & Roozenbeek, J. (2020). You are fake news: Political bias in perceptions of fake news. Media, Culture & Society, 42(3), 460–470. https://doi.org/10.1177/0163443720906992
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Venkateswaran, R. T., & Ojha, A. K. (2019). Abandon Hofstede-based research? Not yet! A perspective from the philosophy of the social sciences. Asia Pacific Business Review, 25(3), 413–434. https://doi.org/10.1080/13602381.2019.1584487
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vosoughi, S., Roy, D., & Aral, S. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science, 359(6380), 1146–1151. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aap9559
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, Y., McKee, M., Torbica, A., & Stuckler, D. (2019). Systematic literature review on the spread of health-related misinformation on social media. Social Science & Medicine, 240, e112552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112552
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wasserman, H., & Madrid-Morales, D. (2019). An exploratory study of “fake news” and media trust in Kenya, Nigeria and South Africa. African Journalism Studies, 40(1), 107–123. https://doi.org/10.1080/23743670.2019.1627230
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weeks, B. E., & Gil de Zúñiga, H. (2019). What’s next? Six observations for the future of political misinformation research. American Behavioral Scientist, 65(2), 277–289. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764219878236
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wei, L., Willnat, L., & Shao, S. (2012). Cultural differences in the use of web 1.0 and web 2.0: A comparative analysis of Chinese and American youth. China Media Research, 8(4), 77–89.
   Google Scholar
• Yang, L.-Q., Spector, P. E., Sanchez, J. I., Allen, T. D., Poelmans, S., Cooper, C. L., … Woo, J.-M. (2012). Individualism–collectivism as a moderator of the work demands–strains relationship: A cross-level and cross-national examination. Journal of International Business Studies, 43(4), 424–443. https://doi.org/10.1057/jibs.2011.58
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar