Is it Seeing or Believing? Exposure, Perceived Realism, and Emerging Adults' Perceptions of Their Own and Others' Attitudes About Relationships

REFERENCES

• Aubrey , J. , Harrison , K. , Kramer , L. and Yellin , J. 2003 . Variety vs. timing: Gender differences in college students' sexual expectations as predicted by exposure to sexually oriented television . Communication Research , 30 ( 4 ) : 432 – 460 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andsager , J. L. , Austin , E. W. and Pinkleton , B. E. 2001 . Questioning the value of realism: Young adults' processing of messages in alcohol-related public service announcements and advertising . Journal of Communication , 51 ( 1 ) : 121 – 142 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amonker , R. G. 1980 . What do teens know about the facts of life? . Journal of School Health , 50 ( 9 ) : 527 – 530 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arnett , J. J. 2002 . “ The sounds of sex: Sex in teen's music and music videos. ” . In Sexual teens, sexual media Edited by: Brown , J. , Walsh-Childers , K. and Steele , J. 253 – 264 . Hillsdale, NJ : Erlbaum. .
   Google Scholar
• Azjen , I. and Fishbien , M. 1980 . Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior Englewood Cliffs, NJ : Prentice-Hall. .
   Google Scholar
• Bandura , A. 1977 . Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ : Prentice Hall. .
   Google Scholar
• Bandura , A. 1986 . Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ : Prentice Hall. .
   Google Scholar
• Basil , M. D. and Brown , W. J. 1997 . Marketing AIDS prevention: The differential impact hypothesis versus identification effects . Journal of Consumer Psychology , 6 ( 4 ) : 389 – 411 .
   Google Scholar
• Bersamin , M. M. , Bourdeau , B. , Fisher , D. A. and Gruber , J. W. 2010 . Television use, sexual behavior, and relationship status at last oral sex and vaginal intercourse . Sexuality & Culture: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly , 14 ( 2 ) : 157 – 168 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bettor , L. , Hendrick , S. S. and Hendrick , C. 1995 . Gender and sexual standards in dating relationships . Personal Relationships , 2 ( 4 ) : 359 – 369 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brosius , H. and Engel , D. 1996 . The causes of third-person effects: Unrealistic optimism, impersonal impact, or negative attitudes towards media influence . International Journal of Public Opinion Research , 8 : 142 – 162 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown , J. and L'Engle , K. L. 2009 . X-rated: Sexual attitudes and behaviors associated with U.S. early adolescents' exposure to sexually explicit media . Communication Research , 36 ( 1 ) : 129 – 151 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown , J. , L'Engle , K. , Pardun , C. , Guo , G. , Kenneavy , K. and Jackson , C. 2006 . Sexy media matter: Exposure to sexual content in music, movies, television and magazines predicts black and white adolescents' sexual behavior . Pediatrics , 117 : 1018 – 1027 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown , J. D. and Newcomer , S. F. 1991 . Television viewing and adolescents' sexual behavior . Journal of Homosexuality , 21 : 77 – 91 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Busselle , R. W. 2003 . Television realism measures: The influence of program salience on global judgments . Communication Research Reports , 20 ( 4 ) : 367 – 375 .
   Google Scholar
• Carpenter , L. M. 1998 . From girls into women: Scripts for sexuality and romance in Seventeen magazine, 1974–1994 . Journal of Sex Research , 35 : 158 – 168 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carroll , J. L. , Volk , K. D. and Hyde , J. S. 1985 . Differences between males and females in motives for engaging in sexual intercourse . Archives of Sexual Behavior , 14 ( 2 ) : 131 – 139 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang , E. C. , Asakawa , K. and Sanna , L. J. 2001 . Cultural variations in optimistic and pessimistic bias: Do Easterners really expect the worst and Westerners really expect the best when predicting future life events . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 81 ( 3 ) : 476 – 491 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chia , S. C. and Gunther , A. C. 2006 . How media contribute to misperceptions of social norms about sex . Mass Communication and Society , 9 ( 3 ) : 301 – 320 .
   Google Scholar
• Chock , T. M. 2004 . Let's talk about sex: Behavioral and perceptual responses to college students' condom use discussion scripts , Doctoral dissertation Retrieved from Proquest Dissertations and Theses. (UMI AAT 3114508)
   Google Scholar
• Chock , T. M. , Fox , J. R. , Angelini , J. R. , Lee , S. and Lang , A. 2007 . Telling me quickly: How arousing fast-paced PSAs decrease self-other differences . Communication Research , 34 ( 6 ) : 618 – 636 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen , J. , Mutz , D. , Price , V. and Gunther , A. 1988 . Perceived impact of defamation: An experiment on third-person effects . Public Opinion Quarterly , 52 : 161 – 173 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen , L. L. and Shotland , R. L. 1996 . Timing of first sexual intercourse in a relationship: Expectations, experiences, and perceptions of others . Journal of Sex Research , 33 ( 4 ) : 291 – 299 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collins , R. L. , Elliott , M. N. , Berry , S. H. , Kanouse , D. E. , Kunkel , D. , Hunter , S. B. and Miu , A. 2004 . Watching sex on television predicts adolescent initiation of sexual behavior . Pediatrics , 114 ( 3 ) : 280 – 289 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• David , P. , Liu , K. and Myser , M. 2004 . Methodological artifact or persistant bias? Testing the robustness of the third person and reverse third person effects for alcohol messages . Communication Research , 31 ( 2 ) : 206 – 233 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davison , W. P. 1983 . The third-person effect in communication . Public Opinion Quarterly , 47 : 1 – 15 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duck , J. and Mullin , B. A. 1995 . The perceived impact of the mass media: Reconsidering the third person effect . European Journal of Social Psychology , 25 : 77 – 93 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duck , J. M. , Terry , D. J. and Hogg , M. A. 1995 . The perceived influence of AIDS advertising: Third-person effects in the context of positive media content . Basic and Applied Social Psychology , 17 ( 3 ) : 305 – 325 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Durham , M. G. 1998 . Dilemmas of desire: Representations of adolescent sexuality in two teen magazines . Youth & Society , 29 : 369 – 389 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Escobar-Chaves , Tortolero S.R. , Markham , C. M. , Low , B. J. , Eitel , P. and Thickstun , P. 2005 . Impact of the media on adolescent sexual attitudes and behaviors . Pediatrics , 116 : 303 – 326 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Festinger , L. 1954 . A theory of social comparison processes . Human Relations , 7 : 117 – 140 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisher , J. D. , Misovich , S. J. and Fisher , W. D. 1992 . “ Impact of perceived social norms on adolescents AIDS-risk behavior and prevention. ” . In Adolescents and AIDS: A generation in jeopardy Edited by: Clemente , R. J. 117 – 136 . Newbury Park, CA : Sage. .
   Google Scholar
• Fowers , B. J. , Lyons , E. M. and Montel , K. H. 1996 . Positive illusions about marriage: Self enhancement or relationship enhancement? . Journal of Family Psychology , 10 : 192 – 208 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frey , K. and Hoijat , M. 1998 . Are love styles related to sexual styles? . Journal of Sex Research , 35 ( 3 ) : 265 – 271 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gagnon , J. H. and Simon , W. 2005 . Sexual conduct: The social sources of human sexuality, , 2nd Ed. New Brunswick, NJ : AldineTransaction. .
   Google Scholar
• Garos , S. , Kluck , A. , Beggan , J. , Martindale , J. , Wheeler , A. E. and Zacchilli , T. L. 2008 . Temptation bias: Can self-enhancement limit the influence of gender stereotypes? . Sex Roles , 58 : 311 – 329 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerbner , G. , Gross , L. and Morgan , M. 1994 . “ Growing up with television: Cultivation processes. ” . In Media effects: Advances in theory and research, , 2nd ed. Edited by: Bryant , J. and Zillmann , D. 43 – 67 . Mahwah, NJ : Erlbaum. .
   Google Scholar
• Gillmore , M. R. and Archibald , M. E. 2002 . Teen sexual behavior: Applicability of the theory of reasoned action . Journal of Marriage and Family , 64 : 885 – 897 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gouveia , S. O. and Clarke , V. 2001 . Optimistic bias for negative and positive events . Health Education , 101 ( 5 ) : 228 – 234 .
   Google Scholar
• Granello , D. H. 1997 . Using Beverly Hills, 90210 to explore developmental issues in female adolescents . Youth & Society , 29 : 24 – 53 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenberg , B. S. , Stanley , C. , Siemicki , M. , Heeter , C. , Soderman , A. and Linsangan , R. 1993 . “ Sex content on soaps and prime-time television series. ” . In Media, sex, and the adolescent Edited by: Greenberg , B. S. , Brown , J. D. and Buerkel-Rothfuss , N. L. 29 – 44 . Cresskill, NJ : Hampton Press. .
   Google Scholar
• Gunther , A. and Thorson , E. 1992 . Perceived persuasive effects of product commercials and public service announcements . Communication Research , 19 ( 5 ) : 574 – 596 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hendrick , S. S. and Hendrick , C. 2005 . Gender differences and similarities in sex and love . Personal Relationships , 2 ( 1 ) : 55 – 65 .
   Google Scholar
• Henry Kaiser, J. Family Foundation . 1998 . Kaiser Family Foundation and YM magazine national survey of teens: Teen talk about dating, intimacy, and their sexual experiences. Menlo Park, CA : Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. .
   Google Scholar
• Huesmann , L. R. 1997 . “ Observational learning of violent behavior: Social and biosocial processes. ” . In Biosocial bases of violence Edited by: Raine , A. 69 – 88 . New York, NY : Plenum. .
   Google Scholar
• Huesmann , L. R. and Miller , L. S. 1994 . “ Long-term effects of repeated exposure to media violence in childhood. ” . In Aggressive behavior: Current perspectives Edited by: Huesmann , L. R. 153 – 186 . New York, NY : Plenum Press. .
   Google Scholar
• Kunkel , D. , Eyal , K. , Finnerty , K. , Biely , E. and Donnerstein , E. November 2005 . Sex on TV, 2005 November , Menlo Park, CA : Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. . Report for the Kaiser Family Foundation
   Google Scholar
• Lambert , T. A. , Kahn , A. S. and Apple , K. J. 2003 . Pluralistic ignorance and hooking up . Journal of Sex Research , 40 ( 2 ) : 129 – 133 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazarsfeld , P. F. and Merton , R. K. 1954 . “ Friendship as a social process: A substantive and methodological analysis. ” . In Freedom and control in modern society Edited by: Berger , M. 18 – 66 . New York, NY : Van Nostrand. .
   Google Scholar
• Marks , G. and Miller , N. 1987 . Ten years of research on the false-consensus effect: An empirical and theoretical review . Psychological Bulletin , 102 ( 1 ) : 72 – 90 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCabe , M. and Killackey , E. 2004 . Sexual decision making in young women . Sexual and Relationship Therapy , 19 ( 1 ) : 15 – 27 .
   Google Scholar
• McElwee , R. O. and Dunning , D. 2005 . A broader view of “self” in egocentric social judgment: Current and possible selves . Self and Identity , 4 : 113 – 130 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Otten , S. and Epstude , K. 2006 . Overlapping mental representations of self, ingroup, and outgroup: Unraveling self-stereotyping and self-anchoring . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 32 ( 7 ) : 957 – 969 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pardun , C. J. , L'Engle , K. L. and Brown , J. D. 2005 . Linking exposure to outcomes: early adolescents' consumption of sexual content in six media . Mass Communication & Society , 8 : 75 – 91 .
   Google Scholar
• Peter , J. and Valkenburg , P. M. 2006 . Adolescents' exposure to sexually explicit material and recreational attitudes towards sex . Journal of Communication , 56 : 639 – 660 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peterson , J. L. , Moore , K. A. and Furstenberg , F. 1991 . Television viewing and early initiation of sexual intercourse . Journal of Homosexuality , 21 : 93 – 118 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Potter , W. J. 1988 . Perceived reality in television effects research . Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media , 32 ( 1 ) : 23 – 41 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Preacher , K. J. and Hayes , A. F. 2008a . Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models . Behavior Research Methods , 40 : 879 – 891 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Preacher , K. J. and Hayes , A. F. 2008b . Web page to accompany: Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models . Behavior Research Methods , 40 : 879 – 891 . Retrieved from http://www.comm.ohio-state.edu/ahayes/SPSS%20programs/indirect.htm
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reid , S. A. , Byrne , S. , Brundidge , J. S. , Shoham , M. D. and Marlow , M. L. 2007 . A critical test of self-enhancement, exposure, and self-categorization explanations for first- and third-person perceptions . Human Communication Research , 33 ( 2 ) : 143 – 162 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubin , A. M. 1979 . Television use by children and adolescents . Human Communication Research , 5 : 109 – 120 .
   Google Scholar
• Rubin , A. M. , Perse , E. M. and Powell , R. A. 1985 . Loneliness, parasocial interaction, and local television news viewing . Human Communication Research , 12 ( 2 ) : 155 – 180 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sapolsky , B. S. and Tabarlet , J. O. 1991 . Sex in primetime television: 1979 versus 1989 . Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media , 35 : 505 – 516 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shapiro , M. A. and Chock , T. M. 2003 . Psychological processes in perceiving reality . Media Psychology , 5 ( 2 ) : 163 – 198 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shapiro , M. A. and Chock , T. M. 2004 . Media dependency and perceived reality of fiction and news . Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media , 48 ( 4 ) : 675 – 695 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shapiro , M. A. and Odom , P. R. Person effects and perceived reality . Paper presented at the International Communication Association . New Orleans, LA.
   Google Scholar
• Shapiro , M. A. and Otori , H. O. Self-other perceptions of African American and White body types in movies . Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association . San Francisco, CA.
   Google Scholar
• Snyder , L. B. and Rouse , D. J. 1995 . The media can have more than an impersonal impact: The case of AIDS risk perceptions and behavior . Health Communication , 7 : 125 – 145 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strouse , J. S. , Buerkel-Rothfuss , N. L. and Long , E. C. 1995 . Gender and family as moderators of the relationship between music video exposure and adolescent sexual permissiveness . Adolescence , 30 : 505 – 521 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tajfel , H. and Turner , J. C. 1986 . “ The social identity theory of inter-group behavior. ” . In Psychology of intergroup relations Edited by: Worchel , S. and Austin , L. W. 7 – 24 . Chicago : Nelson-Hall. .
   Google Scholar
• Taylor , L. D. 2005 . Effects of visual and verbal sexual television content and perceived realism on attitudes and beliefs . Journal of Sex Research , 42 ( 2 ) : 130 – 137 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tyler , T. R. and Cook , F. L. 1984 . The mass media and judgments of risk: Distinguishing impact on personal and societal level judgments . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 47 : 693 – 708 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Lange , P. A. M. , Rusbult , C. E. , Semin-Goossens , A. , Gorts , C. A. and Stalpers , M. 1999 . Being better than others, but otherwise perfectly normal. The similarity and uniqueness bias in close relationships . Personal Relationships , 6 : 269 – 289 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ward , L. M. 1995 . Talking about sex: Common themes about sexuality in prime-time viewing programs children and adolescents view most . Journal of Youth and Adolescence , 24 : 595 – 615 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ward , L. M. 2002 . Does television exposure affect emerging adults' attitudes and assumptions about sexual relationships? Correlational and experimental confirmation . Journal of Youth and Adolescence , 31 ( 1 ) : 1 – 15 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ward , L. M. , Hansbrough , E. and Walker , E. 2005 . Contributions of music video exposure to Black adolescents' gender and sexual schemas . Journal of Adolescent Research , 20 ( 2 ) : 143 – 166 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ward , L. M. and Rivadeneyra , R. 1999 . Contributions of entertainment television to adolescents' sexual attitudes and expectations: The role of viewing amount versus viewer involvement . Journal of Sex Research , 36 : 237 – 249 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weinstein , N. D. 1980 . Unrealistic optimism about future life events . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 39 ( 5 ) : 806 – 820 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitaker , D. J. and Miller , K. S. 2000 . Parent-adolescent discussions about sex and condoms: Impact on peer influences of sexual risk behavior . Journal of Adolescent Research , 15 ( 2 ) : 251 – 273 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zurbriggen , E. L. and Morgan , E. M. 2006 . Who wants to marry a millionaire? Reality dating television programs, attitudes toward sex, and sexual behaviors . Sex Roles , 54 ( 1–2 ) : 1 – 17 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar