Obstructing the cascade: motivational system coactivation dampening defensive reactions to threat and disgust

References

• Aron, A., Coups, E., & Aron, E. N. (2013). Statistics for the behavioral and social sciences: Pearson new international edition: A brief course (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
   Google Scholar
• Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191–215. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bradley, B., Field, M., Mogg, K., & De Houwer, J. (2004). Attentional and evaluative biases for smoking cues in nicotine dependence: Component processes of biases in visual orienting. Behavioural Pharmacology, 15(1), 29–36. doi:10.1097/01.fbp.0000113331.49506.b5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bradley, M. M., Codispoti, M., Cuthbert, B. N., & Lang, P. J. (2001). Emotion and motivation I: Defensive and appetitive reactions in picture processing. Emotion, 1(3), 276–298. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.1.3.276
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bradley, M. M., Cuthbert, B. N., & Lang, P. J. (1990). Startle reflex modification: Emotion or attention? Psychophysiology, 27(5), 513–522. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1990.tb01966.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burgoon, J. K. (1978). A communication model of personal space violations: Explication and an initial test. Human Communication Research, 4(2), 129–142. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.1978.tb00603.x
   Google Scholar
• Burton, S. M., & Tiffany, S. T. (1997). The effect of alcohol consumption on craving to smoke. Addiction, 92(1), 15–26. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.1997.tb03634.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cacioppo, J. T., & Berntson, G. G. (1994). Relationship between attitudes and evaluative space: A critical review, with emphasis on the separability of positive negative substrates. Psychological Bulletin, 115(3), 401–423. doi:10.1037//0033-2909.115.3.401
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cacioppo, J. T., & Gardner, W. L. (1999). Emotion. Annual Review of Psychology, 50, 191–214. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.50.1.191
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cacioppo, J. T., Gardner, W. L., & Berntson, G. G. (1999). The affect system has parallel and integrative processing components from follows function. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(5), 839–855. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.76.5.839
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carter, B. L., & Tiffany, S. T. (1999). Meta-analysis of cue-reactivity in addiction research. Addiction, 94(3), 327–340. doi:10.1046/j.1360-0443.1999.9433273.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clayton, R. B., Leshner, G., Bolls, P. D., & Thorson, E. (2017). Discard the smoking cues—Keep the disgust: An investigation of tobacco smokers’ motivated processing of anti-tobacco commercials. Health Communication, 32(11), 1319–1330. doi:10.1080/10410236.2016.1220042
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clayton, R. B., Leshner, G., Tomko, R. L., Trull, T. J., & Piasecki, T. M. (2017). Countering craving with disgust images: Examining nicotine withdrawn smokers’ motivated message processing of anti-tobacco public service announcements. Journal of Health Communication, 22(3), 254–261. doi:10.1080/10810730.2016.1268222
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooper, R. A., Plaisted-Grant, K. C., Baron-Cohen, S., & Simons, J. S. (2017). Eye movement reveal a dissociation between memory encoding and retrieval in adults with autism. Cognition, 159, 127–138. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2016.11.013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dillard, J. P. (1994). Rethinking the study of fear appeals: An emotional perspective. Communication Theory, 4(4), 295–323. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.1994.tb00094.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dillard, J. P., & Anderson, J. W. (2004). The role of fear in persuasion. Psychology & Marketing, 21(11), 909–926. doi:10.1002/mar.20041
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drobes, D. J., & Tiffany, S. T. (1997). Induction of smoking urge through imaginal and in vivo procedures: Physiological and self-report manifestations. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106(1), 15–25. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.106.1.15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehrman, R. N., Robbins, S. J., Bromwell, M. A., Lankford, M. E., Monterosso, J. R., & O’Brien, C. P. (2002). Comparing attentional bias to smoking cues in current smokers, former smokers, and non-smokers using a dot-probe task. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 67(2), 185–191. doi:10.1016/S0376-8716(02)00065-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Falcone, M., Lerman, C., Cappella, J. N., Sanborn, P., Jepson, C., & Strasser, A. A. (2013). No untoward effects of smoking cues in anti-smoking public service announcements. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 133(1), 279–282. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.05.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haidt, J., McCauley, C., & Rozin, P. (1994). Individual differences in sensitivity to disgust: A scale sampling seven domains of disgust elicitors. Personality and Individual Differences, 16(5), 701–713. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(94)90212-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henderson, J. M. (2003). Human gaze control during real-world scene perception. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7(11), 498–504. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2003.09.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henderson, J. M., & Hollingworth, A. (1999). The role of fixation position in detecting scene changes across saccades. Psychological Science, 10(5), 438–443. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00183
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hurlburt, R. T. (2003). Comprehending behavioral statistics (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth.
   Google Scholar
• Jacob, R. J. K. (1995). Eye tracking in advanced interface design. In W. Bareld & T. Furness (Eds.), Virtual environments and advanced interface design (pp. 258–288). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kang, Y., Cappella, J. N., Strasser, A. A., & Lerman, C. (2009). The effect of smoking cues in antismoking advertisements on smoking urge and psychophysiological reactions. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 11(3), 254–261. doi:10.1093/ntr/ntn033
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keene, J. R., & Lang, A. (2016). Dynamic motivated processing of emotional trajectories in public service announcements. Communication Monographs, 83(4), 468–485. doi:10.1080/03637751.2016.1198040
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lang, A. (2006). Using the limited capacity model of motivated mediated message processing to design effective cancer communication messages. Journal of Communication, 56(1), S57–S80. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2006.00283.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lang, A., Sanders-Jackson, A., Wang, Z., & Rubenking, B. (2013). Motivated message processing: How motivational activation influences resource allocation, encoding, and storage of TV messages. Motivation and Emotion, 37(3), 508–517. doi:10.1007/s11031-012-9329-y
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lang, P. J. (1995). The emotion probe: Studies of motivation and attention. American Psychologist, 50(5), 372–385. doi:10.1037//0003-066X.50.5.372
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lang, P. J., Bradley, M. M., & Cuthbert, B. N. (1990). Emotion, attention, and the startle reflex. Psychological Review, 97(3), 377–395. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.97.3.377
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, S., & Cappella, J. N. (2013). Distraction effects of smoking cues in antismoking messages: Examining resource allocation to message processing as a function of smoking cues and argument strength. Media Psychology, 16(2), 154–176. doi:10.1080/15213269.2012.755454
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leshner, G., Bolls, P., & Thomas, E. (2009). Scare’em or disgust’em: The effects of graphic health promotion messages. Health Communication, 24(5), 447–458. doi:10.1080/10410230903023493
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leshner, G., Bolls, P., & Wise, K. (2011). Motivated processing of fear appeal and disgust images in televised anti-tobacco ads. Journal of Media Psychology, 23(2), 77–89. doi:10.1027/1864-1105/a000037
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leshner, G., Vultee, F., Bolls, P. D., & Moore, J. (2010). When a fear appeal isn’t just a fear appeal: The effects of graphic anti-tobacco messages. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 54(3), 485–507. doi:10.1080/08838151.2010.498850
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leventhal, H. (1970). Findings and theory in the study of fear communications. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 5, pp. 119–186). New York, NY: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Leventhal, H. (1971). Fear appeals and persuasion: The differentiation of a motivational construct. American Journal of Public Health, 61(6), 1208–1224. doi:10.2105/AJPH.61.6.1208
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lochbuehler, K., Engels, R. C., & Scholte, R. H. (2009). Influence of smoking cues in movies on craving among smokers. Addiction, 104(12), 2102–2109. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02712.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDermut, W., & Haaga, D. A. (1998). Effect of stage of change on cue reactivity in continuing smokers. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 6(3), 316–324. doi:10.1037/1064-1297.6.3.316
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meczkowski, E. J., Dillard, J. P., & Shen, L. (2016). Threat appeals and persuasion: Seeking and finding the elusive curvilinear effect. Communication Monographs, 83(3), 373–395. doi:10.1080/03637751.2016.1158412
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, N. E. (1951). Illustrated by the development of a theory of conflict behavior. Journal of Personality, 20(1), 82–100. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1951.tb01514.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Molitor, R. J., Ko, P. C., Hussey, E. P., & Ally, B. A. (2014). Memory-related eye movements challenge behavioral measures of pattern completion and pattern separation. Hippocampus, 24(6), 666–672. doi:10.1002/hipo.22256
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morales, A. C., Wu, E. C., & Fitzsimmons, G. J. (2012). How disgust enhances the effectiveness of fear appeals. Journal of Marketing Research, 49(3), 383–393. doi:10.1509/jmr.07.0364
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nabi, R. L. (2002). The theoretical versus the lay meaning of disgust: Implications for emotion research. Cognition and Emotion, 16(5), 695–703. doi:10.1080/02699930143000437
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). Communication and persuasion: Central and peripheral routes to attitude change. New York, NY: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Sanders-Jackson, A. N., Capella, J. N., Linebarger, D. L., Piotrowski, J. T., O’Keeffe, M., & Strasser, A. A. (2011). Visual attention to antismoking PSAs: Smoking cues versus other attention-grabbing features. Human Communication Research, 37(2), 275–292. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2010.01402.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shadel, W. G., Niaura, R., & Abrams, D. B. (2001). Effect of different cue stimulus delivery channels on craving reactivity: Comparing in vivo and video cues in regular cigarette smokers. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 32(4), 203–209. doi:10.1016/S0005-7916(01)00035-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snyder, L. B., Hamilton, M. A., Mitchell, E. W., Kiwanuka-Tondo, J., Fleming-Milici, F., & Proctor, D. (2004). A meta-analysis of the effect of mediated health communication campaigns on behavior change in the United States. Journal of Health Communication., 9(1), 71–96. doi:10.1080/10810730490271548
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tiffany, S. T., Cox, L. S., & Elash, C. A. (2000). Effects of transdermal nicotine patches on abstinence-induced and cue-elicited craving in cigarette smokers. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(2), 233–240. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.68.2.233
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vigneau, M., Beaucousin, V., Herve, P. Y., Duffau, H., Crivello, F., Houde, O., … Tzourio-Mazoyer, N. (2006). Meta-analyzing left hemisphere language areas: Phonology, semantics, and sentence processing. NeuroImage, 30(4), 1414–1432. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.11.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilken, J. A., Smith, B. D., Tola, K., & Mann, M. (2000). Trait anxiety and prior exposure to non-stressful stimuli: Effects on psychophysiological arousal and anxiety. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 37(3), 233–242. doi:10.1016/S0167-8760(00)00082-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witte, K. (1992). Putting the fear back into fear appeals: The extended parallel process model. Communications Monographs, 59(4), 329–349. doi:10.1080/03637759209376276
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witte, K. (1994). Fear control and danger control: A test of the extended parallel process model (EPPM). Communications Monographs, 61(2), 113–134. doi:10.1080/03637759409376328
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witte, K., & Allen, M. (2000). A meta-analysis of fear appeals: Implications for effective public health campaigns. Health Education & Behavior, 27(5), 591–615. doi:10.1177/109019810002700506
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar