143
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Empirical Articles

Age-related Changes in Task Switching Costs in Middle Childhood

ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon & ORCID Icon

References

  • Allport, A., & Wylie, G. (1999). Task-switching: Positive and negative priming of task-set. In G. W. Humphreys, J. Duncan, & A. Treisman (Eds.), Attention, space, and action: Studies in cognitive neuroscience (pp. 273–296). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
  • Badre, D., & Wagner, A. D. (2006). Computational and neurobiological mechanisms underlying cognitive flexibility. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103(18), 7186–7191. doi:10.1073/pnas.05095501
  • Baltes, P. B. (1997). On the incomplete architecture of human ontogeny: Selection, optimization, and compensation as foundation of developmental theory. American Psychologist, 52(4), 366–380. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.52.4.366
  • Baltes, P. B., Lindenberger, U., & Staudinger, U. M. (2006). Life‐span theory in Developmental Psychology. In W. Damon & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Theoretical models of human development (pp. 569–664). Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
  • Best, J. R., & Miller, P. H. (2010). A developmental perspective on executive function. Child Development, 81(6), 1641–1660. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01499.x
  • Blakey, E., Visser, I., & Carroll, D. J. (2016). Different executive functions support different kinds of cognitive flexibility: Evidence from 2‐, 3‐, and 4‐year‐olds. Child Development, 87(2), 513–526. doi:10.1111/cdev.12468
  • Buttelmann, F., & Karbach, J. (2017). Development and plasticity of cognitive flexibility in early and middle childhood. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, Article 1040. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01040
  • Carlson, S. M. (2005). Developmentally sensitive measures of executive function in preschool children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 28(2), 595–616. doi:10.1207/s15326942dn2802_3
  • Cepeda, N. J., Kramer, A. F., & Gonzalez de Sather, J. C. M. (2001). Changes in executive control across the life span: Examination of task-switching performance. Developmental Psychology, 37(5), 715–730. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.37.5.715
  • Chevalier, N., & Blaye, A. (2009). Setting goals to switch between tasks: Effect of cue transparency on children’s cognitive flexibility. Developmental Psychology, 45(3), 782–797. doi:10.1037/a0015409
  • Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (2006). Lineamientos para el comportamiento ético en las ciencias sociales y humanidades. Resolución 2857/06. [Guidelines for ethical behavior in the social sciences and humanities. Resolution 2857/06]. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Ministerio de Educación, Ciencia y Tecnología. Retrieved May 10, 2022, from http://www.conicet.gov.ar/wp-content/uploads/RD-20061211-2857.pdf
  • Cragg, L., & Chevalier, N. (2012). The processes underlying flexibility in childhood. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 65(2), 209–232. doi:10.1080/17470210903204618
  • Cragg, L., & Nation, K. (2009). Shifting development in mid-childhood: The influence of between-task interference. Developmental Psychology, 45(5), 1465–1479. doi:10.1037/a0015360
  • Crone, E. A., Bunge, S. A., Van Der Molen, M. W., & Richard Ridderinkhof, K. (2006). Switching between tasks and responses: A developmental study. Developmental Science, 9(3), 278–287. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2006.00490.x
  • Crone, E. A., Richard Ridderinkhof, K., Worm, M., Somsen, R. J., & Van Der Molen, M. W. (2004). Switching between spatial stimulus–response mappings: A developmental study of cognitive flexibility. Developmental Science, 7(4), 443–455. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2004.00365.x
  • Dajani, D. R., & Uddin, L. Q. (2015). Demystifying cognitive flexibility: Implications for clinical and developmental neuroscience. Trends in Neurosciences, 38(9), 571–578. doi:10.1016/j.tins.2015.07.003
  • Davidson, M. C., Amso, D., Anderson, L. C., & Diamond, A. (2006). Development of cognitive control and executive functions from 4 to 13 years: Evidence from manipulations of memory, inhibition, and task switching. Neuropsychologia, 44(11), 2037–2078. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.02.006
  • Deák, G. O. (2003). The development of cognitive flexibility and language abilities. In R. V. Kail (Ed.), Advances in child development and behavior (Vol. 31, pp. 271–327). San Diego, CA, USA: Academic Press.
  • De Luca, C. R., & Leventer, R. J. (2008). Developmental trajectories of executive functions across the lifespan. In V. Anderson, R. Jacobs, & P. J. Anderson (Eds.), Executive functions and the frontal lobes: A lifespan perspective (pp. 23–56). New York, NY, USA: Taylor & Francis.
  • Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750
  • Diamond, A. (2020). Executive functions. In M. J. Aminoff, F. Boller, & D. F. Swaab(Eds., Handbook of Clinical Neurology (Vol. 173, pp. 225–240). Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier. doi:10.1016/b978-0-444-64150-2.09986-x.
  • Dibbets, P., & Jolles, J. (2006). The switch task for children: Measuring mental flexibility in young children. Cognitive Development, 21(1), 60–71. doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2005.09.004
  • Eisenberg, I. W., Bissett, P. G., Zeynep Enkavi, A., Li, J., MacKinnon, D. P., Marsch, L. A., & Poldrack, R. A. (2019). Uncovering the structure of self-regulation through data-driven ontology discovery. Nature Communications, 10(1). doi:10.1038/s41467-019-10301-1
  • Field, A. (2013). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (4th ed.). London, England: Sage.
  • Friedman, N. P., & Miyake, A. (2017). Unity and diversity of executive functions: Individual differences as a window on cognitive structure. Cortex, 86, 186–204. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2016.04.023
  • Hollingshead, A. B. (2011). Four factor index of social status. Yale Journal of Sociology, 8, 21–52.
  • Howlett, C. A., Wewege, M. A., Berryman, C., Oldach, A., Jennings, E., Moore, E., … Moseley, G. L. (2021). Same room-different windows? A systematic review and meta-analysis of the relationship between self-report and neuropsychological tests of cognitive flexibility in healthy adults. Clinical Psychology Review, 88, Article 102061. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102061
  • Huizinga, M., Dolan, C. V., & Van der Molen, M. W. (2006). Age-related change in executive function: Developmental trends and a latent variable analysis. Neuropsychologia, 44(11), 2017–2036. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.01.010
  • Huizinga, M., & Van der Molen, M. W. (2007). Age-group differences in set-switching and set-maintenance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task. Developmental Neuropsychology, 31(2), 193–215. doi:10.1080/87565640701190817
  • Introzzi, I., & Canet Juric, L. (2019). TAC: Tareas de Autorregulación Cognitiva. [TAC: Cognitive Self-Regulation Tasks]. https://tac.com.ar/evaluacion/ [Accessed May 22, 2022]
  • Ionescu, T. (2012). Exploring the nature of cognitive flexibility. New Ideas in Psychology, 30(2), 190–200. doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2011.11.001
  • The jamovi project (2021). jamovi. (Version 2.2) [Computer Software]. Retrieved from https://www.jamovi.org
  • Jordan, P. L., & Morton, J. B. (2008). Flankers facilitate 3-year-olds’ performance in a card-sorting task. Developmental Psychology, 44(1), 265–274. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.44.1.265
  • Jost, K., De Baene, W., Koch, I., & Brass, M. (2013). A review of the role of cue processing in task switching. Zeitschrift für Psychologie, 221(1), 5–14. doi:10.1027/2151-2604/a000125
  • Karbach, J., & Kray, J. (2007). Developmental changes in switching between mental task sets: The influence of verbal labeling in childhood. Journal of Cognition and Development, 8(2), 205–236. doi:10.1080/15248370701202430
  • Kliegel, M., Mackinlay, R., & Jäger, T. (2008). Complex prospective memory: Development across the lifespan and the role of task interruption. Developmental Psychology, 44(2), 612–617. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.44.2.612
  • Koch, I., Poljac, E., Müller, H., & Kiesel, A. (2018). Cognitive structure, flexibility, and plasticity in human multitasking—An integrative review of dual-task and task-switching research. Psychological Bulletin, 144(6), 557–583. doi:10.1037/bul0000144
  • Koch, I., Prinz, W., & Allport, A. (2005). Involuntary retrieval in alphabet-arithmetic tasks: Task-mixing and task-switching costs. Psychological Research, 69(4), 252–261. doi:10.1007/s00426-004-0180-y
  • Kray, J., Eber, J., & Karbach, J. (2008). Verbal self-instructions in task switching: A compensatory tool for action-control deficits in childhood and old age? Developmental Science, 11(2), 223–236. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00673.x
  • Kray, J., Eber, J., & Lindenberger, U. (2004). Age differences in executive functioning across the lifespan: The role of verbalization in task preparation. Acta Psychologica, 115(2–3), 143–165. doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2003.12.001
  • Kray, J., Li, K. Z., & Lindenberger, U. (2002). Age-related changes in task-switching components: The role of task uncertainty. Brain and Cognition, 49(3), 363–381. doi:10.1006/brcg.2001.1505
  • Kray, J., & Lindenberger, U. (2000). Adult age differences in task switching. Psychology and Aging, 15(1), 126–147. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.15.1.126
  • Lakens, D. (2017a). Equivalence tests: A practical primer for t tests, correlations, and meta-analyses. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 8(4), 355–362. doi:10.1177/1948550617697177
  • Lakens, D. (2017b). TOSTER: Two one-sided tests (TOST) equivalence testing (Version 0.3) [Computer software]. Retrieved from https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=TOSTER
  • Lakens, D., Scheel, A. M., & Isager, P. M. (2018). Equivalence testing for psychological research: A tutorial. Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science, 1(2), 259–269. doi:10.1177/2515245918770963
  • Luciana, M., & Nelson, C. A. (1998). The functional emergence of prefrontally-guided working memory systems in four-to eight-year-old children. Neuropsychologia, 36(3), 273–293. doi:10.1016/S0028-3932(97)00109-7
  • Mayr, U. (2001). Age differences in the selection of mental sets: The role of inhibition, stimulus ambiguity, and response-set overlap. Psychology and Aging, 16(1), 96–109. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.16.1.96
  • Mayr, U., & Kliegl, R. (2000). Task-set switching and long-term memory retrieval [Editorial]. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 26(5), 1124–1140. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.26.5.1124
  • Meiran, N. (1996). Reconfiguration of processing mode prior to task performance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 22(6), 1423–1442. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.22.6.1423
  • Meiran, N. (2000). Modeling cognitive control in task-switching. Psychological Research, 63(3–4), 234–249. doi:10.1007/s004269900004
  • Meiran, N., & Marciano, H. (2002). Limitations in advance task preparation: Switching the relevant stimulus dimension in speeded same—different comparisons. Memory & Cognition, 30(4), 540–550. doi:10.3758/BF03194955
  • Monsell, S. (2003). Task switching. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7(3), 134–140. doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00028-7
  • Moriguchi, Y., & Hiraki, K. (2011). Longitudinal development of prefrontal function during early childhood. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 1(2), 153–162. doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2010.12.004
  • Moriguchi, Y., & Hiraki, K. (2014). Behavioral and neural differences during two versions of cognitive shifting tasks in young children and adults. Developmental Psychobiology, 56(4), 761–769. doi:10.1002/dev.21145
  • Morton, J. B., Bosma, R., & Ansari, D. (2009). Age-related changes in brain activation associated with dimensional shifts of attention: An fMRI study. Neuroimage, 46(1), 249–256. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.01.037
  • Peng, A., Kirkham, N. Z., & Mareschal, D. (2018). Task switching costs in preschool children and adults. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 172, 59–72. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2018.01.019
  • Philipp, A. M., Kalinich, C., Koch, I., & Schubotz, R. I. (2008). Mixing costs and switch costs when switching stimulus dimensions in serial predictions. Psychological Research, 72(4), 405–414. doi:10.1007/s00426-008-0150-x
  • Reimers, S., & Maylor, E. A. (2005). Task switching across the life span: Effects of age on general and specific switch costs. Developmental Psychology, 41(4), 661–671. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.41.4.661
  • Richardson, C., Anderson, M., Reid, C. L., & Fox, A. M. (2018). Development of inhibition and switching: A longitudinal study of the maturation of interference suppression and reversal processes during childhood. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 34, 92–100. doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2018.03.002
  • Rogers, R. D., & Monsell, S. (1995). Costs of a predictible switch between simple cognitive tasks. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 124(2), 207–231. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.124.2.207
  • Rubin, O., & Meiran, N. (2005). On the origins of the task mixing cost in the cuing task-switching paradigm. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 31(6), 1477–1491. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.31.6.1477
  • Schneider, B. A., Avivi-Reich, M., & Mozuraitis, M. (2015). A cautionary note on the use of the Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) in classification designs with and without within-subject factors. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, Article 474. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00474
  • Segundo-Marcos, R., Carrillo, A. M., Fernández, V. L., & González, M. T. D. (2022). Development of executive functions in late childhood and the mediating role of cooperative learning: A longitudinal study. Cognitive Development, 63, Article 101219. doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2022.101219
  • Steinhauser, M., & Hübner, R. (2005). Mixing costs in task shifting reflect sequential processing stages in a multicomponent task. Memory & Cognition, 33(8), 1484–1494. doi:10.3758/BF03193380
  • Vandierendonck, A., Liefooghe, B., & Verbruggen, F. (2010). Task switching: Interplay of reconfiguration and interference control. Psychological Bulletin, 136(4), 601–626. doi:10.1037/a0019791
  • Verhaeghen, P., & Basak, C. (2005). Ageing and switching of the focus of attention in working memory: Results from a modified N-back task. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A, 58(1), 134–154. doi:10.1080/02724980443000241
  • Wendelken, C., Munakata, Y., Baym, C., Souza, M., & Bunge, S. A. (2012). Flexible rule use: Common neural substrates in children and adults. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 2(3), 329–339. doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2012.02.001
  • World Medical Association (2013). Declaration of Helsinki – Ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. Retrieved from https://www.wma.net/policies-post/wma-declaration-of-helsinki-ethical-principles-for-medical-research-involving-human-subjects/
  • Zelazo, P. D. (2006). The Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS): A method of assessing executive function in children. Nature Protocols, 1(1), 297–301. doi:10.1038/nprot.2006.46
  • Zelazo, P. D., Craik, F. I., & Booth, L. (2004). Executive function across the life span. Acta Psychologica, 115(2–3), 167–183. doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2003.12.005
  • Zelazo, P. D., & Müller, U. (2002). The balance beam in the balance: Reflections on rules, relational complexity, and developmental processes. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 81(4), 458–465. doi:10.1006/jecp.2002.2667

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.