REFERENCES
- Adler, N. E., and D. H. Rehkopf. 2008. U.S. Disparities in Health: Descriptions, causes, and mechanisms. Annual Review of Public Health 29:235–52. doi:https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.publhealth.29.020907.090852.
- Albain, K. S., J. M. Unger, J. J. Crowley, C. A. Coltman, and D. L. Hershman. 2009. Racial disparities in cancer survival among randomized clinical trials patients of the southwest oncology group. JNCI: Journal of the National Cancer Institute 101(14):984–92. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/djp175.
- Allison, A. C. 1954. Protection afforded by sickle-cell trait against subtertian malarial infection. BMJ 1(4857):290–4. doi:https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.1.4857.290.
- American College of Cardiology. 2019. 2018 Guideline on the management of blood cholesterol. Accessed September 8, 2020. https://www.acc.org/∼/media/Non-Clinical/Files-PDFs-Excel-MS-Word-etc/Guidelines/2018/Guidelines-Made-Simple-Tool-2018-Cholesterol.pdf.
- Association of American Medical Colleges. 2020. AAMC statement on police brutality and racism in America and Their Impact On Health. Accessed September 8, 2020. https://www.aamc.org/news-insights/press-releases/aamc-statement-police-brutality-and-racism-america-and-their-impact-health.
- Basset, M., and N. Krieger. 1986. The health of black folk: Disease, class, and ideology in science. Monthly Review 38(3):74–169. doi:https://doi.org/10.14452/MR-038-03-1986-07_8.
- Benfer, E., S. Mohapatra, L. Wiley, and R. Yearby. 2020. Health justice strategies to combat the pandemic: Eliminating discrimination, poverty, and health inequities during and after COVID-19, Yale J. Health Policy, Law, and Ethics (forthcoming). Accessed September 8, 2020. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3636975.
- Begley, S. 2017. ‘Every time it’s a battle’: In excruciating pain, sickle cell patients are shunted aside. STATNews. Accessed September 6, 2020. https://www.statnews.com/2017/09/18/sickle-cell-pain-treatment/.
- Benjamin, R. 2019. Race after technology: Abolitionist tools for the new jim code. Medford, MA: Polity Press. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soz162.
- Berger, J., and D. R. Miller. 2020. Coronoa and community: The entrenchment of structural bias in planning for pandemic preparedness. The American Journal of Bioethics 20(7):112–4. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2020.1779853.
- Bloom, M. 1995. Understanding sickle cell disease (Understanding Health and Sickness Series). Jackson: University Press of Mississippi.
- Bonilla-Silva, E. 1997. Rethinking racism: Toward a structural interpretation. American Sociological Review 62(3):465–80. doi:https://doi.org/10.2307/2657316.
- Bonilla-Silva, E. 1999. The essential social fact of race. American Sociological Review 64(6):899–906. doi:https://doi.org/10.2307/2657410.
- Bowser, R. 2001. Racial profiling in health care: An institutional analysis of medical treatment disparities. Michigan Journal of Race & Law 7:79–133.
- Boyko, T., M. Longaker, and G. P. Yang. 2018. Review of the current management of pressure ulcers. Advances in Wound Care 7(2):57–67. doi:https://doi.org/10.1089/wound.2016.0697.
- Bradt, S. 2010. ‘One-drop rule’ persists. The Harvard Gazette. Accessed September 9, 2020. https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2010/12/one-drop-rule-persists/.
- Braveman, P., S. Egerter, and D. R. Williams. 2011. The social determinants of health: Coming of age. Annual Review of Public Health 32:381–98. doi:https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031210-101218.
- Carey, L. A., C. M. Perou, C. A. Livasy, L. G. Dressler, D. Cowan, K. Conway, G. Karaca, M. A. Troester, C. K. Tse, S. Edmiston, et al. 2006. Race, breast cancer subtypes, and survival in the Carolina Breast Cancer Study. JAMA 295(21):2492–502. doi:https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.295.21.2492.
- Cavalli-Sforza, L. L., P. Menozzi, 1994. and, and A. Piazza. The history and geography of human genes. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2017. Life expectancy. Accessed September 3, 2020. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/life-expectancy.htm.
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2019. Infant mortality. Accessed September 3, 2020. https://www.cdc.gov/reproductivehealth/maternalinfanthealth/infantmortality.htm.
- Chowkwanyun, M. 2013. Race is not biology. The Atlantic. Accessed September 8, 2020. https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2013/05/race-is-not-biology/276174/.
- Clark, B. 2005. Hospital flight from minority communities: How our existing civil rights framework fosters racial inequality in healthcare. DePaul Journal of Health Care Law 9(2):1023–100.
- Cohn, I. 1938. Carcinoma of the breast in the Negro. Annals of Surgery 107(5):716–32. doi:https://doi.org/10.1097/00000658-193805000-00009.
- David, R. J., and J. W. Collins. Jr. 2007. Disparities in infant mortality: What’s genetics got to do with it? American Journal of Public Health 97(7):1191–7. doi:https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2005.068387.
- Duster, T. 2005. Race and reification in science. Science 307(5712):1050–1. doi:https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1110303.
- Evans, M. K., L. Rosenbaum, D. Malina, S. Morrissey, and E. J. Rubin. 2020. Diagnosing and treating systemic racism. The New England Journal of Medicine 383(3):274–6. doi:https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMe2021693.
- Feagin, J. 2006. Systemic racism: A theory of oppression. New York: Routledge.
- Fletcher, M. A. 1997. Tiger woods says he’s not just black. The Seattle Times. Accessed September 8, 2020. https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/?date=19970423&slug=2535313.
- Ford, C., and C. O. Airhihenbuwa. 2010. The public health critical race methodology: Praxis for antiracism research. Social Science & Medicine 71(8):1390–8. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.07.030.
- Garber, G. 2002. Will tiger ever show the color of his stripes. ESPN. Accessed September 8, 2020. http://www.espn.com/gen/s/2002/0521/1385355.html.
- Gordon, N. H., J. P. Crow, J. Brumberg, and N. A. Berger. 1992. Socioeconomic factors and race in breast cancer recurrence and survival. American Journal of Epidemiology 135(6):609–18. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a116340.
- Gower, B. A., and L. A. Fowler. 2020. Obesity in African-Americans: The role of physiology. Journal of Internal Medicine 288(3):295–304. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/joim.13090.
- Green, A. R., D. R. Carney, D. J. Pallin, L. H. Ngo, K. L. Raymond, L. I. Iezzoni, and M. R. Banaji. 2007. Implicit bias among physicians and its prediction of thrombolysis decisions for black and white patients. Journal of General Internal Medicine 22(9):1231–8. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-007-0258-5.
- Haywood, C., P. Tanabe, R. Naik, M. C. Beach, and S. Lanzkron. 2013. The impact of race and disease on sickle cell patient wait times in the emergency department. The American Journal of Emergency Medicine 31(4):651–6. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajem.2012.11.005.
- Haywood, C., R. Naik, M. C. Beach, and S. Lanzkron. 2011. Do sickle cell patients wait longer to see physicians in the emergency department. Blood 118(21):2070. doi:https://doi.org/10.1182/blood.V118.21.2070.2070.
- Herrick, J. B. 2001. Peculiar elongated and sickle-shaped red blood corpuscles in a case of severe anemia. The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 74(3):179–84.
- Institute of Medicine Committee on Understanding and Eliminating Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care. 2003. Unequal treatment: Confronting racial and ethnic inequities in health care. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press.
- JAMA. 1947. Sickle cell anemia, a race specific disease. Journal of the American Medical Association 133(1):33–34.
- Jorde, L. B. 2003. Genetic variation and human evolution. American Society of Human Genetics. Accessed May 3, 2020. https://www.ashg.org/education/pdf/geneticvariation.pdf.
- Kahn, J. 2013. Race in a bottle: The Story of BiDil and racialized medicine in a post-genomic age. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
- Khan, R. 2009. Skin color is not race. Discover Magazine. Accessed September 8, 2020. https://www.discovermagazine.com/the-sciences/skin-color-is-not-race.
- Kwateng, M. 2014. Repacking racism: The role of sickle cell anemia in the construction of race as biological. Senior Capstone Projects. Paper 331. Accessed September 8, 2020. http://digitalwindow.vassar.edu/senior_capstone.
- Lanzkron, S., C. P. Carrol, and C. Haywood. 2013. Mortality rates and age at death from sickle cell disease: U.S., 1979–2005. Public Health Reports 128(2):110–16. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/003335491312800206.
- Lao, O., T. T. Lu, M. Nothnagel, O. Junge, S. Freitag-Wolf, A. Caliebe, M. Balascakova, J. Bertranpetit, L. A. Bindoff, D. Comas, et al. 2008. Correlation between genetic and geographic structure in Europe. Current Biology 18(16):1241–48. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2008.07.049.
- Lee, Y., P. Muennig, I. Kawachi, and M. Hatzenbuehler. 2015. Effects of racial prejudice on the health of communities: A multilevel survival analysis. American Journal of Public Health 105(11):2349–355. doi:https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2015.302776.
- Levy, S., G. Sutton, P. C. Ng, L. Feuk, A. L. Halpern, B. P. Walenz, N. Axelrod, J. Huang, E. F. Kirkness, G. Denisov, et al. 2007. The diploid genome sequence of an individual human. PLoS Biology 5(10):e254. doi:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0050254.
- Lewis, A. E. 2004. What group? – Studying whites and whiteness in the era of “color-blindness”. Sociological Theory 22(4):623–46. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0735-2751.2004.00237.x.
- Lewontin, R. C. 2005. The fallacy of racial medicine: Confusions about human races. Genewatch: A Bulletin of the Committee for Responsible Genetics 18(4):5–7.
- Maglo, K. N., T. B. Mersha, and L. J. Martin. 2016. Population genomics and the statistical values of race: An interdisciplinary perspective on the biological classification of human populations and implications for clinical genetic epidemiological research. Frontiers of Genetics 7:22. doi:https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2016.00022.
- Mainous, A. G., R. J. Tanner, C. A. Harle, R. Baker, N. K. Shokar, and M. M. Hulihan. 2015. Attitudes toward management of sickle cell disease and its complications: A national survey of academic family physicians. Anemia 2015:853835. doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/853835.
- Malat, J., S. Mayorga-Gallo, and D. R. Williams. 2018. The effects of whiteness on the health of whites in the USA. Social Science & Medicine 199:148–56. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.06.034.
- Mcintosh, M. S., V. Kumar, C. Kalynych, M. Lott, J.-L. Chang, and R. H. Lerman. 2013. Racial differences in blood lipids lead to underestimation of cardiovascular risk in black women in a nested observational study. Global Advances in Health and Medicine 2(2):76–79. doi:https://doi.org/10.7453/gahmj.2012.076.
- Melamed, J. 2015. Racial capitalism. Critical Ethnic Studies 1(1):76–85.
- Menashe, I., W. Anderson, I. Jatoi, and P. Rosenberg. 2009. Underlying causes of the black-white racial disparity in breast cancer mortality: A population-based analysis. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 101(14):993–1000. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/djp176.
- Miranda, J., T. G. McGuire, D. R. Williams, and P. Wang. 2008. Mental Health in the context of health disparities. The American Journal of Psychiatry 165(9):1102–108. doi:https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.08030333.
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease. 2018. Accessed September 9, 2020. https://www.niaid.nih.gov/research/minority-health.
- National Institutes of Health, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Division of Blood Disease and Resources. 2002. The Management of Sickle Cell Disease. NIH Publication No. 02-2117. Accessed September 9, 2020. https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/files/docs/guidelines/sc_mngt.pdf.
- National Kidney Foundation. 2014. Frequently asked questions about GFR estimates. Accessed September 9, 2020. https://www.kidney.org/content/frequently-asked-questions-about-gfr-estimates.
- Nelson, A. 2011. Body and soul: The black panther party and the fight against medical discrimination. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
- Nelson, S. C., and H. W. Hackman. 2013. Race matters: Perceptions or face and racism in a sickle cell center. Pediatric Blood & Cancer 60(3):451–54. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/pbc.24361.
- Okwerekwu, J. A. 2017. My medical school lesson was tinged with racism. Did that affect how I treated a sickle cell patient years later? STATNews. Accessed September 9, 2020. https://www.statnews.com/2017/09/21/sickle-cell-racism-doctors/.
- Penner, L. A., J. F. Dovidio, T. V. West, S. L. Gaertner, T. L. Albrecht, R. K. Dailey, and T. Markova. 2010. Aversive racism and medical interactions with black patients: A field study. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 46(2):436–40. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.11.004.
- Perez-Rodriguez, J., and A. de la Fuente. 2017. Now is the time for a postracial medicine: Biomedical research, the national institutes of health, and the perpetuation of scientific racism. The American Journal of Bioethics 17(9):36–47. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2017.1353165.
- Plaza, S., F. Calafell, A. Helal, N. Bouzerna, G. Lefranc, J. Bertranpetit, and D. Comas. 2003. Joining the pillars of Hercules: MtDNA sequences show multidirectional gene flow in the western Mediterranean. Annals of Human Genetics 67 (Pt 4):312–28. doi:https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1469-1809.2003.00039.x.
- Roberts, D. 2012. Fatal invention: How science. Politics, and big business re-create race in the twenty-first century. New York, NY: The New Press.
- Schulman, K. A., J. A. Berlin, W. Harless, J. F. Kerner, S. Sistrunk, B. J. Gersh, R. Dubé, C. K. Taleghani, J. E. Burke, S. Williams, et al. 1999. The effect of race and sex on physicians’ recommendations for cardiac catherization. The New England Journal of Medicine 340(8):618–26. 1999). doi:https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199902253400806.
- Shariff-Marco, S., A. C. Klassen, and J. V. Bowie. 2010. Racial/ethnic differences in self-reported racism and its association with cancer-related health behaviors. American Journal of Public Health 100(2):364–74. doi:https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2009.163899.
- Shriner, D., and C. N. Rotimi. 2018. Whole-genome-sequence-based haplotypes reveal single origin of the sickle allele during the holocene wet phase. American Journal of Human Genetics 102(4):547–56. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajhg.2018.02.003.
- Sineshaw, H. M., M. Gaudet, E. M. Ward, W. D. Flanders, C. Desantis, C. C. Lin, and A. Jemal. 2014. Association of race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and breast cancer subtypes in the National Cancer Data Base (2010–2011). Breast Cancer Research and Treatment 145(3):753–63. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10549-014-2976-9.
- Solovieff, N., S. W. Hartley, C. T. Baldwin, E. S. Klings, M. T. Gladwin, J. G. Taylor, G. J. Kato, L. A. Farrer, M. H. Steinberg, and P. Sebastiani. 2011. Ancestry of African Americans with sickle cell disease. Blood Cells, Molecules & Diseases 47(1):41–45. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcmd.2011.04.002.
- Srinivasan, S. R., D. S. Freedman, L. S. Webber, and G. S. Berenson. 1987. Black-white differences in cholesterol levels of serum high-density lipoprotein subclasses among children: The bogalusa heart study. Circulation 76(2):272–79. doi:https://doi.org/10.1161/01.cir.76.2.272.
- Student National Medical Association, Inc. 2020. Inc statement on racism as a public health issue. Accessed September 8, 2020. https://cdn.ymaws.com/snma.org/resource/resmgr/hlpa/policy_statements/new_racism_as_a_public_healt.pdf.
- Swetlitz, I. 2016. Teaching medical students to challenge ‘unscientific’ racial categories. STATNews. Accessed September 3, 2020. https://www.statnews.com/2016/03/10/medical-schools-teaching-race/.
- Tanabe, P., R. Spratling, D. Smith, P. Grissom, and M. Hulihan. 2019. CE: Understanding the complications of sickle cell disease. The American Journal of Nursing 119(6):26–35. doi:https://doi.org/10.1097/01.NAJ.0000559779.40570.2c.
- The World Bank. 2018a. Infant mortality rate. Accessed September 8, 2020. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.IMRT.IN.
- The World Bank. 2018b. Life expectancy rate. Accessed September 8, 2020. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN.
- Thew, J. 2020. Nurses must fight against racism. ANA’s president share how. Health Leaders. Accessed September 8, 2020. https://www.healthleadersmedia.com/nursing/nurses-must-fight-against-racism-anas-president-shares-how.
- Trnka, B. 2019. The kidneys in black and white: Inheriting medical racism. Medium. Accessed September 8, 2020. https://medium.com/race-law-a-critical-analysis/the-kidneys-and-medical-racism-b16aecb3a827.
- Tsai, J., J. P. Cerdeña, R. Khazanchi, E. Lindo, J. R. Marcelin, A. Rajagopalan, R. S. Sandoval, A. Westby, and C. C. Gravlee. 2020. There is no ‘African American Physiology’: The fallacy of racial essentialism. Journal of Internal Medicine 288(3):368–70. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/joim.13153.
- van Ryn, M., D. Burgess, J. Malat, and J. Griffin. 2006. Physicians’ perceptions of patients’ social and behavioral characteristics and race disparities in treatment recommendations for men with coronary artery disease. American Journal of Public Health 96(2):351–57. doi:https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2004.041806.
- Vestal, C. 2020. Racism is a public health crisis, say cities and counties. Pew Trust Stateline. Accessed September 8, 2020. https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/blogs/stateline/2020/06/15/racism-is-a-public-health-crisis-say-cities-and-counties.
- Wailoo, K. 2001. Dying in the city of the blues: Sickle cell anemia and the politics of race and health. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.
- Wakefield, E. O., A. Pantaleao, J. M. Popp, L. P. Dale, J. P. Santanelli, M. D. Litt, and W. T. Zempsky. 2018. Describing perceived racial bias among youth with sickle cell disease. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 43(7):779–88. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jsy015.
- Washington, H. 2006. Medical apartheid. New York, NY: Anchor Books.
- Wilkinson, D. 1974. For whose benefit? Politics and sickle cell. The Black Scholar 5(8):26–3. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/00064246.1974.11431415.
- Williams, D. R., J. A. Lawrence, and B. A. Davis. 2019. Racism and health: Evidence and needed research. Annual Review of Public Health 40:105–25. doi:https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040218-043750.
- Williams, R., H. W. Neighbors, and J. S. Jackson. 2003. Racial/ethnic discrimination and health: Findings from community studies. American Journal of Public Health 93(2):200–208. doi:https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.93.2.200.
- Yearby, R. 2011. Racial inequities in mortality and access to health care. The untold peril of rationing health care in the United States. The Journal of Legal Medicine 32(1):77–83. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/01947648.2011.550830.
- Yearby, R. 2012. Breaking the cycle of “unequal treatment” with health care reform: Acknowledging and addressing the continuation of racial bias. University of Connecticut Law Review 44(4):1281–324.
- Yearby, R. 2018. Racial disparities in health status and access to health care: The continuation of inequality in the United States Due to structural racism. American Journal of Economics and Sociology 77(3–4):1113–152. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/ajes.12230.
- Yearby, R. 2020. Structural racism and health disparities: Moving beyond the social determinants of health to achieve racial equity. Journal of Law, Medicine, & Ethics 48:518–26.
- Yu, N., F.-C. Chen, S. Ota, L. B. Jorde, P. Pamilo, L. Patthy, M. Ramsay, T. Jenkins, S.-K. Shyue, and W.-H. Li. 2002. Larger genetic differences within Africans than between Africans and Eurasians. Genetics 161(1):269–74.