Source Apportionment of PM_2.5 and PM_2.5-Bound Trace Elements in Pretoria, South Africa

References

• Adeyemi, A., P. Molnar, J. Boman, and J. Wichmann. 2021. “Source Apportionment of Fine Atmospheric Particles Using Positive Matrix Factorization in Pretoria, South Africa.” Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 193 (11): 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-021-09483-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agency, E. P. 1998. Locating and Estimating Air Emissions from Sources of Arsenic and Arsenic Compounds. Raleigh-Durham-Cary, NC: Research Triangle Park.
   Google Scholar
• Bartkowiak, A., J. Lemanowicz, and B. Breza-Boruta. 2017. “Evaluation of the Content of Zn, Cu, Ni and Pb as Well as the Enzymatic Activity of Forest Soils Exposed to the Effect of Road Traffic Pollution.” Environmental Science and Pollution Research International 24 (30): 23893–23902. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-0013-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belis, C. A., F. Karagulian, B. R. Larsen, and P. K. Hopke. 2013. “Critical Review and Meta-Analysis of Ambient Particulate Matter Source Apportionment Using Receptor Models in Europe.” Atmospheric Environment 69: 94–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.11.009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boman, J., J. Lindén, S. Thorsson, B. Holmer, and I. Eliasson. 2009. “A Tentative Study of Urban and Suburban Fine Particles (PM2.5) Collected in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.” X-Ray Spectrometry 38 (4): 354–362. https://doi.org/10.1002/xrs.1173
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bove, M. C., P. Brotto, F. Cassola, E. Cuccia, D. Massabò, A. Mazzino, A. Piazzalunga, and P. Prati. 2014. “An Integrated PM2.5 Source Apportionment Study: Positive Matrix Factorisation vs. the Chemical Transport Model CAMx.” Atmospheric Environment 94: 274–286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.05.039
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cao, C., W. Jiang, B. Wang, J. Fang, J. Lang, G. Tian, J. Jiang, and T. Zhu. 2014. “Inhalable Microorganisms in Beijing’s PM2.5 and PM10 Pollutants during a Severe Smog Event.” Environmental Science & Technology 48 (3): 1499–1507. https://doi.org/10.1021/es4048472
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan, Y. C., D. D. Cohen, O. Hawas, E. Stelcer, R. Simpson, L. Denison, N. Wong, M. Hodge, E. Comino, and S. Carswell. 2008. “Apportionment of Sources of Fine and Coarse Particles in Four Major Australian Cities by Positive Matrix Factorisation.” Atmospheric Environment 42 (2): 374–389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.09.030
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chimidza, S., and K. Moloi. 2000. “Identification of Sources of Aerosol Particles in Three Locations in Eastern Botswana.” Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 105 (D14): 17811–17818. https://doi.org/10.1029/2000JD900182
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davy, P. K., T. Ancelet, W. J. Trompetter, A. Markwitz, and D. C. Weatherburn. 2012. “Composition and Source Contributions of Air Particulate Matter Pollution in a New Zealand Suburban Town.” Atmospheric Pollution Research 3 (1): 143–147. https://doi.org/10.5094/APR.2012.014
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Hoogh, K., M. Korek, D. Vienneau, M. Keuken, J. Kukkonen, M. J. Nieuwenhuijsen, C. Badaloni, et al. 2014. “Comparing Land Use Regression and Dispersion Modelling to Assess Residential Exposure to Ambient Air Pollution for Epidemiological Studies.” Environment International 73: 382–392. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2014.08.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dimitriou, K., and P. Kassomenos. 2014. “Local and Regional Sources of Fine and Coarse Particulate Matter Based on Traffic and Background Monitoring.” Theoretical and Applied Climatology 116 (3–4): 413–433. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-013-0961-6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Djolov, G., and C. Tshehla. 2018. “Source Profiling, Source Apportionment and Cluster Transport Analysis to Identify the Sources of PM and the Origin of Air Masses to an Industrialised Rural Area in Limpopo.” Clean Air Journal 28 (2): 54–66. https://doi.org/10.17159/2410-972x/2018/v28n2a18
   Google Scholar
• Eklund, A. G., J. C. Chow, D. S. Greenbaum, G. M. Hidy, M. T. Kleinman, J. G. Watson, and R. E. Wyzga. 2014. “Public Health and Components of Particulate Matter: The Changing Assessment of Black Carbon.” Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association (1995) 64 (11): 1221–1231. https://doi.org/10.1080/10962247.2014.960218
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fernández-Camacho, R., S. Rodríguez, J. De la Rosa, A. S. de la Campa, A. Alastuey, X. Querol, Y. González-Castanedo, I. Garcia-Orellana, and S. Nava. 2012. “Ultrafine Particle and Fine Trace Metal (As, Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn) Pollution Episodes Induced by Industrial Emissions in Huelva, SW Spain.” Atmospheric Environment 61: 507–517. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.08.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ganser, G. H., and P. Hewett. 2010. “An Accurate Substitution Method for Analysing Censored Data.” Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene 7 (4): 233–244. https://doi.org/10.1080/15459621003609713
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Genchi, G., A. Carocci, G. Lauria, M. S. Sinicropi, and A. Catalano. 2020. “Nickel: Human Health and Environmental Toxicology.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17 (3): 679. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17030679
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gieré, R., R. Kaltenmeier, and L. Pourcelot. 2012. “Uranium Oxide and Other Airborne Particles Deposited on Cypress Leaves Close to a Nuclear Facility.” Journal of Environmental Monitoring 14 (4): 1264. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2em11000h
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guhirwa, S. 2018. A Study on Spatial and Temporal Variability of Black Carbon in Urban and Rural Background in Rwanda. Kigali, Rwanda: University of Rwanda.
   Google Scholar
• Hao, Y., S. Deng, Y. Yang, W. Song, H. Tong, and Z. Qiu. 2019. “Chemical Composition of Particulate Matter from Traffic Emissions in a Road Tunnel in Xi’an, China.” Aerosol and Air Quality Research 19 (2): 234–246. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.2018.04.0131
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hopke, P. K. 2000. Center for Air Resources Engineering and Science Clarkson University Potsdam, 13699-5708. NY.
   Google Scholar
• Hopke, P. K., Q. Dai, L. Li, and Y. Feng. 2020. “Global Review of Recent Source Apportionments for Airborne Particulate Matter.” The Science of the Total Environment 740: 140091. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140091
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hopke, P. K., K. Ito, T. Mar, W. F. Christensen, D. J. Eatough, R. C. Henry, E. Kim, et al. 2006. “PM Source Apportionment and Health Effects: 1. Intercomparison of Source Apportionment Results.” Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology 16 (3): 275–286. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.jea.7500458
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hornung, R. W., and L. D. Reed. 1990. “Estimation of Average Concentration in the Presence of Nondetectable Values.” Applied Occupational and Environmental Hygiene 5 (1): 46–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047322X.1990.10389587
   Google Scholar
• Howlett-Downing, C. 2022. “Associations of PM2.5 and Respiratory Diseases in Pretoria, 2017–2020.” PhD diss., University of Pretoria.
   Google Scholar
• Howlett-Downing, C., J. Boman, P. Molnár, J. Shirinde, and J. Wichmann. 2022. “PM2.5 Chemical Composition and Geographical Origin of Air Masses in Pretoria, South Africa.” Water, Air, & Soil Pollution 233 (7): 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-022-05746-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang, Y., H. Gong, H. Hu, B. Fu, B. Yuan, S. Li, G. Luo, and H. Yao. 2021. “Migration and Emission Behavior of Arsenic and Selenium in a Circulating Fluidized Bed Power Plant Burning Arsenic/Selenium-Enriched Coal.” Chemosphere 263: 127920. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127920
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iijima, A., K. Sato, Y. Fujitani, E. Fujimori, Y. Saito, K. Tanabe, T. Ohara, K. Kozawa, and N. Furuta. 2009. “Clarification of the Predominant Emission Sources of Antimony in Airborne Particulate Matter and Estimation of Their Effects on the Atmosphere in Japan.” Environmental Chemistry 6 (2): 122–132. https://doi.org/10.1071/EN08107
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iijima, A., K. Sato, K. Yano, M. Kato, K. Kozawa, and N. Furuta. 2008. “Emission Factor for Antimony in Brake Abrasion Dusts as One of the Major Atmospheric Antimony Sources.” Environmental Science & Technology 42 (8): 2937–2942. https://doi.org/10.1021/es702137g
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ito, K., N. Xue, and G. Thurston. 2004. “Spatial Variation of PM2.5 Chemical Species and Source-Apportioned Mass Concentrations in New York City.” Atmospheric Environment 38 (31): 5269–5282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2004.02.063
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaszczak, E., Ż. Polkowska, S. Narkowicz, and J. Namieśnik. 2017. “Cyanides in the Environment-Analysis-Problems and Challenges.” Environmental Science and Pollution Research International 24 (19): 15929–15948. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-9081-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jayasekher, T. 2009. “Aerosols near by a Coal Fired Thermal Power Plant: Chemical Composition and Toxic Evaluation.” Chemosphere 75 (11): 1525–1530. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.02.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jeong, H., and K. Ra. 2021. “Multi-Isotope Signatures (Cu, Zn, Pb) of Different Particle Sizes in Road-Deposited Sediments: A Case Study from Industrial Area.” Journal of Analytical Science and Technology 12 (1): 39. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40543-021-00292-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Junker, C., and C. Liousse. 2008. “A Global Emission Inventory of Carbonaceous Aerosol from Historic Records of Fossil Fuel and Biofuel Consumption for the Period 1860–1997.” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 8 (5): 1195–1207. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-8-1195-2008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalisa, E., S. Archer, E. Nagato, E. Bizuru, K. Lee, N. Tang, S. Pointing, K. Hayakawa, and D. Lacap-Bugler. 2019. “Chemical and Biological Components of Urban Aerosols in Africa: Current Status and Knowledge Gaps.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16 (6): 941. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16060941
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalisa, E., E. G. Nagato, E. Bizuru, K. C. Lee, N. Tang, S. B. Pointing, K. Hayakawa, S. D. J. Archer, and D. C. Lacap-Bugler. 2018. “Characterization and Risk Assessment of Atmospheric PM2.5 and PM10 Particulate-Bound PAHs and NPAHs in Rwanda, Central-East Africa.” Environmental Science & Technology 52 (21): 12179–12187. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.8b03219
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karagulian, F., and C. A. Belis. 2012. “Enhancing Source Apportionment with Receptor Models to Foster the Air Quality Directive Implementation.” International Journal of Environment and Pollution 50 (1–4): 190–199. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJEP.2012.051192
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karagulian, F., C. A. Belis, C. F. C. Dora, A. M. Prüss-Ustün, S. Bonjour, H. Adair-Rohani, and M. Amann. 2015. “Contributions to Cities’ Ambient Particulate Matter (PM): A Systematic Review of Local Source Contributions at Global Level.” Atmospheric Environment 120: 475–483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.08.087
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, E., P. K. Hopke, and E. S. Edgerton. 2003. “Source Identification of Atlanta Aerosol by Positive Matrix Factorization.” Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association (1995) 53 (6): 731–739. https://doi.org/10.1080/10473289.2003.10466209
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Leelőssy, Á., F. Molnár, F. Izsák, Á. Havasi, I. Lagzi, and R. Mészáros. 2014. “Dispersion Modeling of Air Pollutants in the Atmosphere: A Review.” Open Geosciences 6 (3): 257–278. https://doi.org/10.2478/s13533-012-0188-6
   Google Scholar
• Li, R., J. Li, L. Cui, Y. Wu, H. Fu, J. Chen, and M. Chen. 2017. “Atmospheric Emissions of Cu and Zn from Coal Combustion in China: Spatio-Temporal Distribution, Human Health Effects, and Short-Term Prediction.” Environmental Pollution (Barking, Essex: 1987) 229: 724–734. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.05.068
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liang, Y., L. Fang, H. Pan, K. Zhang, H. Kan, J. Brook, and Q. Sun. 2014. “PM 2.5 in Beijing–Temporal Pattern and Its Association with Influenza.” Environmental Health: A Global Access Science Source 13 (1): 102–110. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069X-13-102
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Long, C., M. Nascarella, and P. Valberg. 2013. “Carbon Black vs. black Carbon and Other Airborne Materials Containing Elemental Carbon: Physical and Chemical Distinctions.” Environmental Pollution (Barking, Essex: 1987) 181: 271–286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2013.06.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luo, L., Y. Y. Zhang, H. Y. Xiao, H. W. Xiao, N. J. Zheng, Z. Y. Zhang, Y. J. Xie, and C. Liu. 2019. “Spatial Distributions and Sources of Inorganic Chlorine in PM2.5 across China in Winter.” Atmosphere 10 (9): 505. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos10090505
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Macdonald, R. 2003. “Theory and Objectives of Air Dispersion Modelling.” Modelling Air Emissions for Compliance, 1–27.
   Google Scholar
• Maritz, P., J. P. Beukes, P. G. van Zyl, E. H. Conradie, C. Liousse, C. Galy-Lacaux, P. Castéra, et al. 2015. “Spatial and Temporal Assessment of Organic and Black Carbon at Four Sites in the Interior of South Africa.” Clean - Soil, Air, Water 25 (1): 20–33. https://doi.org/10.17159/2410-972X/2015/v25n1a1
   Google Scholar
• Mathuthu, M., V. P. Dudu, and M. Manjoro. 2019. “Source Apportionment of Air Particulates in South Africa: A Review.” Atmospheric and Climate Sciences 09 (01): 100–113. https://doi.org/10.4236/acs.2019.91007
   Google Scholar
• Molnár, P., S. Johannesson, and U. Quass. 2014. “Source Apportionment of PM2.5 Using Positive Matrix Factorisation (PMF) and PMF with Factor Selection.” Aerosol and Air Quality Research 14 (3): 725–733. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.2013.11.0335
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Molnár, P., L. Tang, K. Sjöberg, and J. Wichmann. 2017. “Long-Range Transport Clusters and Positive Matrix Factorisation Source Apportionment for Investigating Transboundary PM2.5 in Gothenburg, Sweden.” Environmental Science. Processes & Impacts 19 (10): 1270–1277. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7EM00122C
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moreno, T., X. Querol, A. Alastuey, J. de la Rosa, A. M. S. de la Campa, M. Minguillón, M. Pandolfi, Y. González-Castanedo, E. Monfort, and W. Gibbons. 2010. “Variations in Vanadium, Nickel and Lanthanoid Element Concentrations in Urban Air.” The Science of the Total Environment 408 (20): 4569–4579. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2010.06.016
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muyemeki, L., R. Burger, S. J. Piketh, B. Language, J. P. Beukes, and P. G. Van Zyl. 2021. “Source Apportionment of Ambient PM10-2.5 and PM2.5 for the Vaal Triangle, South Africa.” South African Journal of Science 117 (5–6): 1–11. https://doi.org/10.17159/sajs.2021/8617
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naidja, L., H. Ali-Khodja, and S. Khardi. 2017. “Particulate Matter from Road Traffic in Africa.” Journal of Earth Sciences and Geotechnical Engineering 7 (1): 304–389.
   Google Scholar
• Nazarpour, A., M. J. Watts, A. Madhani, and S. Elahi. 2019. “Source, Spatial Distribution and Pollution Assessment of Pb, Zn, Cu, and Pb, Isotopes in Urban Soils of Ahvaz City, a Semi-Arid Metropolis in Southwest Iran.” Scientific Reports 9 (1): 5349. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-41787-w
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ngo, N. 2013. Three Essays on the Environment and Health in Cities. New York, NY: Columbia University.
   Google Scholar
• Ngo, N. S., M. Gatari, B. Yan, S. N. Chillrud, K. Bouhamam, and P. L. Kinneym. 2015. “Occupational Exposure to Roadway Emissions and inside Informal Settlements in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Pilot Study in Nairobi, Kenya.” Atmospheric Environment (Oxford, England: 1994) 111: 179–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.04.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Norris, G., R. Duvall, S. Brown, and S. Bai. 2014. “EPA Positive Matrix Factorisation (PMF) 5.0 Fundamentals and User Guide.” US Environmental Protection Agency EPA/600/R-14/108, 1–136. Washington, DC.
   Google Scholar
• Novak, M., A. Sipkova, V. Chrastny, M. Stepanova, P. Voldrichova, F. Veselovsky, E. Prechova, et al. 2016. “Cu-Zn Isotope Constraints on the Provenance of Air Pollution in Central Europe: Using Soluble and Insoluble Particles in Snow and Rime.” Environmental Pollution (Barking, Essex: 1987) 218: 1135–1146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.08.067
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Novakov, T., S. Menon, T. Kirchstetter, D. Koch, and J. Hansen. 2005. “Aerosol Organic Carbon to Black Carbon Ratios: Analysis of Published Data and Implications for Climate Forcing.” Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 110 (D21). https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JD005977
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Novela, R. J., W. M. Gitari, H. Chikoore, P. Molnar, R. Mudzielwana, and J. Wichmann. 2020. “Chemical Characterisation of Fine Particulate Matter, Source Apportionment and Long-Range Transport Clusters in Thohoyandou, South Africa.” Clean Air Journal 30 (2): 1–12. https://doi.org/10.17159/caj/2020/30/2.8735
   Google Scholar
• Paatero, P., S. Eberly, S. Brown, and G. Norris. 2014. “Methods for Estimating Uncertainty in Factor Analytic Solutions.” Atmospheric Measurement Techniques 7 (3): 781–797. https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-7-781-2014
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paatero, P., and P. K. Hopke. 2003. “Discarding or Downweighting High-Noise Variables in Factor Analytic Models.” Analytica Chimica Acta 490 (1–2): 277–289. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0003-2670(02)01643-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paatero, P., and P. K. Hopke. 2009. “Rotational Tools for Factor Analytic Models.” Journal of Chemometrics 23 (2): 91–100. https://doi.org/10.1002/cem.1197
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pachon, J. E., R. J. Weber, X. Zhang, J. A. Mulholland, and A. G. Russell. 2013. “Revising the Use of Potassium (K) in the Source Apportionment of PM2.5.” Atmospheric Pollution Research 4 (1): 14–21. https://doi.org/10.5094/APR.2013.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pascal, M., L. Pascal, M. Bidondo, A. Cochet, H. Sarter, M. Stempfelet, and V. Wagner. 2013. “A Review of the Epidemiological Methods Used to Investigate the Health Impacts of Air Pollution around Major Industrial Areas.” Journal of Environmental and Public Health 2013: 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/737926
   Google Scholar
• Quincey, P. 2007. “A Relationship between Black Smoke Index and Black Carbon Concentration.” Atmospheric Environment 41 (36): 7964–7968. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.09.033
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reff, A., S. I. Eberly, and P. V. Bhave. 2007. “Receptor Modeling of Ambient Particulate Matter Data Using Positive Matrix Factorization: review of Existing Methods.” Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association (1995) 57 (2): 146–154. https://doi.org/10.1080/10473289.2007.10465319
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ruuskanen, J., T. Tuch, H. Ten Brink, A. Peters, A. Khlystov, A. Mirme, G. P. A. Kos, et al. 2001. “Concentrations of Ultrafine, Fine and PM2.5 Particles in Three European Cities.” Atmospheric Environment 35 (21): 3729–3738. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(00)00373-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Safari-Kagabo, A., V. Baharane, S. Guhirwa, C. Sindayigaya, C. Malings, N. Williams, E. Kalisa, J. Gasore, and P. Jaramillo. 2020. “Air Pollution in Kigali, Rwanda: Spatial and Temporal Variability, Source Contributions, and the Impact of Car-Free Sundays.” Clean Air Journal 30 (2): 1–5. https://doi.org/10.17159/caj/2020/30/1.8023
   Google Scholar
• Sahu, L., Y. Kondo, Y. Miyazaki, P. Pongkiatkul, and N. Kim Oanh. 2011. “Seasonal and Diurnal Variations of Black Carbon and Organic Carbon Aerosols in Bangkok.” Journal of Geophysical Research 116 (D15). https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JD015563
   Google Scholar
• Saikia, B. K., M. Sarmah, P. Khare, and B. P. Baruah. 2013. “Investigation on Inorganic Constituents in Indian Coal and Emission Characteristics of the Particulates (PM2.5 and PM10).” Energy Exploration & Exploitation 31 (2): 287–315. https://doi.org/10.1260/0144-5987.31.2.287
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sandradewi, J., A. Prévôt, M. Alfarra, S. Szidat, M. Wehrli, M. Ruff, S. Weimer, V. Lanz, E. Weingartner, and N. Perron. 2008. “Comparison of Several Wood Smoke Markers and Source Apportionment Methods for Wood Burning Particulate Mass.” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions 8 (2): 8091–8118.
   Google Scholar
• Shi, J., R. Chen, C. Yang, Z. Lin, J. Cai, Y. Xia, C. Wang, et al. 2016. “Association between Fine Particulate Matter Chemical Constituents and Airway Inflammation: A Panel Study among Healthy Adults in China.” Environmental Research 150: 264–268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2016.06.022
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh, A., P. Rajput, D. Sharma, M. Sarin, and D. Singh. 2014. “Black Carbon and Elemental Carbon from Postharvest Agricultural-Waste Burning Emissions in the Indo-Gangetic Plain.” Advances in Meteorology 2014 (14): 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/179301
   Google Scholar
• Srivastava, D., A. Goel, and M. Agrawal. 2016. “Particle Bound Metals at Major Intersections in an Urban Location and Source Identification through Use of Metal Markers.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, India Section A: Physical Sciences 86 (2): 209–220. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40010-016-0268-y
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stats, S. 2020. Mid-Year Population Estimates 2020: STATISTICAL RELEASE P0302. Pretoria: Stats SA.
   Google Scholar
• Stein, A. F., R. R. Draxler, G. D. Rolph, B. J. B. Stunder, M. D. Cohen, and F. Ngan. 2015. “NOAA's HYSPLIT Atmospheric Transport and Dispersion Modeling System.” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 96 (12): 2059–2077. https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-14-00110.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szidat, S., M. Ruff, N. Perron, L. Wacker, H.-A. Synal, M. Hallquist, A. S. Shannigrahi, K. E. Yttri, C. Dye, and D. Simpson. 2009. “Fossil and Non-Fossil Sources of Organic Carbon (OC) and Elemental Carbon (EC) in Göteborg, Sweden.” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 9 (5): 1521–1535. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-9-1521-2009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thorpe, A., and R. M. Harrison. 2008. “Sources and Properties of Non-Exhaust Particulate Matter from Road Traffic: A Review.” The Science of the Total Environment 400 (1–3): 270–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.06.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thurston, G., K. Ito, and R. Lall. 2011. “A Source Apportionment of US Fine Particulate Matter Air Pollution.” Atmospheric Environment (Oxford, England: 1994) 45 (24): 3924–3936. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.04.070
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thurston, G. D., and J. D. Spengler. 1985. “A Quantitative Assessment of Source Contributions to Inhalable Particulate Matter Pollution in Metropolitan Boston.” Atmospheric Environment (1967) 19 (1): 9–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/0004-6981(85)90132-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tramuto, F., R. Cusimano, G. Cerame, M. Vultaggio, G. Calamusa, C. M. Maida, and F. Vitale. 2011. “Urban Air Pollution and Emergency Room Admissions for Respiratory Symptoms: A Case-Crossover Study in Palermo, Italy.” Environmental Health 10 (1): 31. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069X-10-31
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tshehla, C., and C. Y. Wright. 2019. “Spatial Variability of PM10, PM2.5 and PM Chemical Components in an Industrialised Rural Area within a Mountainous Terrain.” South African Journal of Science 115 (9–10): 1–10. https://doi.org/10.17159/sajs.2019/6174
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Zyl, P. G., J. P. Beukes, G. Du Toit, D. Mabaso, J. Hendriks, V. Vakkari, P. Tiitta, J. J. Pienaar, M. Kulmala, and L. Laakso. 2014. “Assessment of Atmospheric Trace Metals in the Western Bushveld Igneous Complex, South Africa.” South African Journal of Science 110 (3–4): 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1590/sajs.2014/20130280
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Venter, A., V. Vakkari, J. Beukes, P. van Zyl, H. Laakso, D. Mabaso, P. Tiitta, et al. 2012. “An Air Quality Assessment in the Industrialised Western Bushveld Igneous Complex, South Africa.” South African Journal of Science 108 (9–10): 1–10.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Venter, A. D., P. G. v Zyl, J. P. Beukes, M. Josipovic, J. Hendriks, V. Vakkari, and L. Laakso. 2017. “Atmospheric Trace Metals Measured at a Regional Background Site (Welgegund) in South Africa.” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 17 (6): 4251–4263. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-17-4251-2017
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Visschedijk, A. H. J., H. A. C. Denier van der Gon, J. H. J. Hulskotte, and U. Quass. 2013. “Anthropogenic Vanadium Emissions to Air and Ambient Air Concentrations in North-West Europe.” E3S Web of Conferences 1: 03004. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/20130103004
   Google Scholar
• Wahlin, P., R. Berkowicz, and F. Palmgren. 2006. “Characterisation of Traffic-Generated Particulate Matter in Copenhagen.” Atmospheric Environment 40 (12): 2151–2159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2005.11.049
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, X., X. Bi, G. Sheng, and J. Fu. 2006. “Chemical Composition and Sources of PM10 and PM2.5 Aerosols in Guangzhou, China.” Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 119 (1–3): 425–439. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-005-9034-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wen, H., and J. Carignan. 2007. “Reviews on Atmospheric Selenium: Emissions, Speciation and Fate.” Atmospheric Environment 41 (34): 7151–7165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.07.035
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wichmann, J., and K. Voyi. 2012. “Ambient Air Pollution Exposure and Respiratory, Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Mortality in Cape Town, South Africa: 2001–2006.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 9 (11): 3978–4016. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph9113978
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wien, S., G. England, K. Loos, K. Ritter, D. Gurney, J. McCarthy, B. Liebowitz, J. Joseph, and G. Franco. 2001. “PM2.5 Speciation Profiles and Emission Factors from Petroleum Industry Gas-fired Sources.” International Emission Inventory Conference, One Atmosphere, One Inventory, Many Challenges.
   Google Scholar
• Williams, J., L. Petrik, and J. Wichmann. 2020. “PM 2.5 Chemical Composition and Geographical Origin of Air Masses in Cape Town, South Africa.” Air Quality, Atmosphere & Health 14 (3): 431–442. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-020-00947-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Willis, R. D., W. D. Ellenson, and T. L. Conner. 2001. “Monitoring and Source Apportionment of Particulate Matter near a Large Phosphorus Production Facility.” Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association (1995) 51 (8): 1142–1166. https://doi.org/10.1080/10473289.2001.10464345
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yin, J., R. M. Harrison, Q. Chen, A. Rutter, and J. J. Schauer. 2010. “Source Apportionment of Fine Particles at Urban Background and Rural Sites in the UK Atmosphere.” Atmospheric Environment 44 (6): 841–851. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2009.11.026
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yu, J., C. Yan, Y. Liu, X. Li, T. Zhou, and M. Zheng. 2018. “Potassium: A Tracer for Biomass Burning in Beijing?” Aerosol and Air Quality Research 18 (9): 2447–2459. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.2017.11.0536
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yu, L., G. Wang, R. Zhang, L. Zhang, Y. Song, B. Wu, X. Li, K. An, and J. Chu. 2013. “Characterization and Source Apportionment of PM2.5 in an Urban Environment in Beijing.” Aerosol and Air Quality Research 13 (2): 574–583. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.2012.07.0192
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, T., Y. Chen, and X. Xu. 2020. “Health Risk Assessment of PM2.5-Bound Components in Beijing, China during 2013–2015.” Aerosol and Air Quality Research 20 (9): 1938–1949. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.2020.03.0108
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhi, M., X. Zhang, K. Zhang, S. J. Ussher, W. Lv, J. Li, J. Gao, Y. Luo, and F. Meng. 2021. “The Characteristics of Atmospheric Particles and Metal Elements during Winter in Beijing: Size Distribution, Source Analysis, and Environmental Risk Assessment.” Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 211: 111937. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.111937
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou, X., V. Strezov, Y. Jiang, X. Yang, T. Kan, and T. Evans. 2020. “Contamination Identification, Source Apportionment and Health Risk Assessment of Trace Elements at Different Fractions of Atmospheric Particles at Iron and Steelmaking Areas in China.” PLoS One 15 (4): e0230983. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0230983
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou, Z., K. L. Dionisio, T. G. Verissimo, A. S. Kerr, B. Coull, R. E. Arku, P. Koutrakis, et al. 2013. “Chemical Composition and Sources of Particle Pollution in Affluent and Poor Neighborhoods of Accra, Ghana.” Environmental Research Letters 8 (4): 044025. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/8/4/044025
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zychowski, K. E., V. Kodali, M. Harmon, C. R. Tyler, B. Sanchez, Y. Ordonez Suarez, G. Herbert, et al. 2018. “Respirable Uranyl-Vanadate-Containing Particulate Matter Derived from a Legacy Uranium Mine Site Exhibits Potentiated Cardiopulmonary Toxicity.” Toxicological Sciences: An Official Journal of the Society of Toxicology 164 (1): 101–114. https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kfy064
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar