Measures of Racial-Ethnic-Cultural (REC) Belonging: A Systematic Review of the Literature

References

• AhnAllen, J. M., Suyemoto, K. L., & Carter, A. S. (2006). Relationship between physical appearance, sense of belonging and exclusion, and racial/ethnic self-identification among multiracial Japanese European Americans. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 12(4), 673–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.12.4.673
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Anant, S. S. (1966). The need to belong. Canada’s Mental Health, 14(2), 21–27.
   Google Scholar
• Barry, D. T. (2002). An ethnic identity scale for East Asian immigrants. Journal of Immigrant Health, 4(2), 87–94. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014598509380
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–529. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belgrave, F., Van Oss Marin, B., & Chambers, D. B. (2000). Cultural, contextual, and intrapersonal predictors of risky sexual attitudes among urban African American girls in early adolescence. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 6(3), 309–322. https://doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.6.3.309
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bracey, J. R., Bámaca, M. Y., & Umaña-Taylor, A. J. (2004). Examining ethnic identity and self-esteem among biracial and monoracial adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33(2), 123–132. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOYO.0000013424.93635.68
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bravo, D. Y., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Guimond, A. B., Updegraff, K. A., & Jahromi, L. B. (2014). Familism, family ethnic socialization, and Mexican-origin adolescent mothers’ psychosocial adjustment. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 20(3), 389–400. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036527
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaudhari, P. (2016). Understanding mixed race and multiethnic students’ sense of belonging in college [ Doctoral Dissertation]. University of Pittsburgh. (Unpublished).
   Google Scholar
• Cokley, K. (2007). Critical issues in the measurement of ethnic and racial identity: A referendum on the state of the field. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(3), 224–234. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.54.3.224
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Contrada, R. J., Ashmore, R. D., Gary, M. L., Coups, E., Egeth, J. D., Sewell, A., Ewell, K., Goyal, T. M., & Chasse, V. (2001). Measures of ethnicity-related stress: Psychometric properties, ethnic group differences, and associations with well-being. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 31(9), 1775–1820. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2001.tb00205.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crocker, J., Luhtanen, R., Blaine, B., & Broadnax, S. (1994). Collective self-esteem and psychological well-being among White, Black, and Asian college students. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20(5), 503–513. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167294205007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Derlan, C. L., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Updegraff, K. A., & Jahromi, L. B. (2017). Longitudinal relations among Mexican-origin mothers’ cultural characteristics, cultural socialization, and 5-year-old children’s ethnic–racial identification. Developmental Psychology, 53(11), 2078–2091. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000386
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franco, M. G., & O’Brien, K. M. (2018). Racial identity invalidation with multiracial individuals: An instrument development study. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 24(1), 112–125. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000170
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frost, D. M., & Meyer, I. H. (2012). Measuring community connectedness among diverse sexual minority populations. The Journal of Sex Research, 49(1), 36–49. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2011.565427
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaines, S. O., Marelich, W., Bunce, D., Robertson, T., & Wright, B. (2013). Multigroup ethnic identity measure (MEIM) expansion: Measuring racial, religious, and national aspects of sense of ethnic identity within the United Kingdom. Identity, 13(4), 289–317. https://doi.org/10.1080/15283488.2013.780973
   Google Scholar
• Goldberg, A. E., Kinkler, L. A., Richardson, H. B., & Downing, J. B. (2012). On the border: Young adults with LGBQ parents navigate LGBTQ communities. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 59(1), 71. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024576
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodenow, C. (1993). Classroom belonging among early adolescent students: Relationships to motivation and achievement. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 13(1), 21–43. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431693013001002
   Google Scholar
• Gummadam, P., Pittman, L. D., & Ioffe, M. (2016). School belonging, ethnic identity, and psychological adjustment among ethnic minority college students. Journal of Experimental Education, 84(2), 289–306. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.2015.1048844
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill, D. L. (2006). Sense of belonging as connectedness, American Indian worldview, and mental health. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 20(5), 210–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apnu.2006.04.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Houkamau, C. A., & Sibley, C. G. (2010). The multi-dimensional model of Māori identity and cultural engagement. New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 39(1), 21. https://www.psychology.org.nz/journal-archive/NZJP-Vol391-2010-2-Houkamau.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Houkamau, C. A., & Sibley, C. G. (2015). The revised multidimensional model of Māori identity and cultural engagement (MMM-ICE2). Social Indicators Research, 122(1), 279–296. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-014-0686-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunter, C. D.-A., Case, A. D., & Harvey, I. S. (2019). Black college students’ sense of belonging and racial identity. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 23(9), 950–966. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2019.1602363
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hurtado, S., & Carter, D. F. (1997). Effects of college transition and perceptions of the campus racial climate on Latino college students’ sense of belonging. Sociology of Education, 70(4), 324–345. https://doi.org/10.2307/2673270
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, G. S., Suyemoto, K. L., & Turner, C. B. (2010). Sense of belonging, sense of exclusion, and racial and ethnic identities in Korean transracial adoptees. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 16(2), 179–190. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015727
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luhtanen, R., & Crocker, J. (1992). A collective self-esteem scale: Self-evaluation of one’s social identity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18(3), 302–318. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167292183006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manuela, S., & Sibley, C. (2013). The Pacific identity and wellbeing scale (PIWBS): A culturally-appropriate self-report measure for Pacific peoples in New Zealand. Social Indicators Research, 112(1), 83–103. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-012-0041-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manuela, S., & Sibley, C. G. (2015). The pacific identity and wellbeing scale-revised (PIWBS-R). Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 21(1), 146–155. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037536
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marcelo, A. K., & Yates, T. M. (2019). Young children’s ethnic–racial identity moderates the impact of early discrimination experiences on child behavior problems. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 25(2), 253–265. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000220
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marks, A. K., Calzada, E., Kiang, L., Pabón Gautier, M. C., Martinez-Fuentes, S., Tuitt, N. R., Ejesi, K., Rogers, L. O., Williams, C. D., & Umaña-Taylor, A. (2020). Applying the lifespan model of ethnic-racial identity: Exploring affect, behavior, and cognition to promote well-being. Research in Human Development, 17(2–3), 154–176. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427609.2020.1854607
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maslow, A. H. (1954). Motivation and personality. Harpers.
   Google Scholar
• Maurizi, L. K., Ceballo, R., Epstein‐Ngo, Q., & Cortina, K. S. (2013). Does neighborhood belonging matter? Examining school and neighborhood belonging as protective factors for Latino adolescents. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 83(2–3), 323. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1111/ajop.12017
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McAdams, D. P., & Pals, J. L. (2006). A new big five: Fundamental principles for an integrative science of personality. American Psychologist, 61(3), 204–217. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.61.3.204
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller-Cotto, D., & Byrnes, J. (2016). Ethnic/racial identity and academic achievement: A meta- analytic review. Developmental Review, 41(1), 51–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2016.06.003
   Google Scholar
• Mohatt, N. V., Fok, C. C. T., Burket, R., Henry, D., & Allen, J. (2011). Assessment of awareness of connectedness as a culturally-based protective factor for Alaska native youth. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 17(4), 444–455. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0025456
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., & Altman, D. G.; The PRISMA Group. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. PLoS Med, 6(7), e1000097. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed1000097
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Navarrete, V., & Jenkins, S. R. (2011). Cultural homelessness, multiminority status, ethnic identity development, and self esteem. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 35(6), 791–804. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.04.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neblett, E. W., Jr, Rivas-Drake, D., & Umaña-Taylor, A. J. (2012). The promise of racial and ethnic protective factors in promoting ethnic minority youth development. Child Development Perspectives, 6(3), 295–303. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2012.00239.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neville, H. A., Oyama, K. E., Odunewu, L. O., & Huggins, J. G. (2014). Dimensions of belonging as an aspect of racial-ethnic-cultural identity: An exploration of indigenous Australians. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 61(3), 414–426. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037115
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Keefe, V. M., Wingate, L. R., Tucker, R. P., Rhoades-Kerswill, S., Slish, M. L., & Davidson, C. L. (2014). Interpersonal suicide risk for American Indians: Investigating thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 20(1), 61–67. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033540
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olson, K. R., Shutts, K., Kinzler, K. D., & Weisman, K. G. (2012). Children associate racial groups with wealth: Evidence from South Africa. Child Development, 83(6), 1884–1899. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01819.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phinney, J. S. (1992). The multigroup ethnic identity measure: A new scale for use with diverse groups. Journal of Adolescent Research, 7(2), 156–176. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/074355489272003
   Google Scholar
• Phinney, J. S., & Ong, A. D. (2007). Conceptualization and measurement of ethnic identity: Current status and future directions. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(3), 271–281. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.54.3.271
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rivas-Drake, D., Seaton, E. K., Markstrom, C., Quintana, S. M., Syed, M., & Lee, R. M., & Ethnic and Racial Identity in the 21st Century Study Group. (2014). Ethnic and racial identity in adolescence: Implications for psychosocial, academic, and health outcomes. Child Development, 85(1), 40–57. http://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12200
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rooney, R., Nesdale, D., Kane, R., Hattie, J., & Goonewardene, R. (2012). The development of the universal ethnic identity scale (UEIS) for use in an Australian context. Australian Psychologist, 47(4), 238–248. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1742-9544.2011.00040.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartz, S. J., Park, I. J., Huynh, Q. L., Zamboanga, B. L., Umana-Taylor, A. J., Lee, R. M., & Agocha, V. B. (2012). The American Identity Measure: Development and validation across ethnic group and immigrant generation. Identity, 12(2), 93–128. https://doi.org/10.1080/15283488.2012.668730.
   Google Scholar
• Scottham, K. M., Sellers, R. M., & Nguyên, H. X. (2008). A measure of racial identity in African American adolescents: The development of the multidimensional inventory of black identity–teen. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 14(4), 297–306. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.14.4.297
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sellers, R. M., Rowley, S. A. J., Chavous, T. M., Shelton, J. N., & Smith, M. A. (1997). Multidimensional inventory of black identity: A preliminary investigation of reliability and construct validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(4), 805–815. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.4.805
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seo, J. W. (2020). Thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness in Korean college students: Psychometric properties and cultural considerations for the interpersonal needs questionnaire-10. Death Studies, 44(5), 261–269. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481187.2018.1541938
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Serrano-Villar, M., & Calzada, E. J. (2016). Ethnic identity: Evidence of protective effects for young, Latino children. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 42, 21–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2015.11.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh, K., Chang, M., & Dika, S. (2010). Ethnicity, self-concept, and school belonging: Effects on school engagement. Educational Research for Policy and Practice, 9(3), 159–175. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10671-010-9087-0
   Google Scholar
• Smith, J. L., Cech, E., Metz, A., Huntoon, M., & Moyer, C. (2014). Giving back or giving up: Native American student experiences in science and engineering. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 20(3), 413. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036945
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snowshoe, A., Crooks, C. V., Tremblay, P. F., Craig, W. M., & Hinson, R. E. (2015). Development of a cultural connectedness scale for first nations youth. Psychological Assessment, 27(1), 249–259. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037867
   Google Scholar
• Stone Brown, S. (2014). Native self-actualization: Transformation beyond greed. BookPatch LLC.
   Google Scholar
• Strayhorn, T. L. (2012). Satisfaction and retention among African American men at two-year community colleges. Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 36(5), 358–375. https://doi.org/10.1080/10668920902782508
   Google Scholar
• Strayhorn, T. L. (2018). College students’ sense of belonging: A key to educational success for all students. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Swanson, D. P., Cunningham, M., Youngblood, J., & Spencer, M. B. (2009). Racial identity development during childhood. In H. A. Neville, B. M. Tynes, & S. O. Utsey (Eds.), Handbook of African American Psychology (pp. 269–281). Sage Publications. http://repository.upenn.edu/gse_pubs/198
   Google Scholar
• Syed, M., & Azmitia, M. (2008). A narrative approach to ethnic identity in emerging adulthood: Bringing life to the identity status model. Developmental Psychology, 44(4), 1012–1027. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.44.4.1012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szabó, Á., & Ward, C. (2022). Development and validation of a short form version of the ethno-cultural identity conflict scale (EICS-SF). Assessment, 29(5), 1020–1032. https://doi.org/10.1177/10731911211000108
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33–47). Brooks/Cole.
   Google Scholar
• Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Quintana, S. M., Lee, R. M., Cross, W. E., Rivas-Drake, D., & Schwartz, S. J.; Ethnic and Racial Identity in the 21st Century Study Group. (2014). Ethnic and racial identity during adolescence and into young adulthood: An integrated conceptualization. Child Development, 85(1), 21–39. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12196
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaccaro, A., & Newman, B. M. (2016). Development of a sense of belonging for privileged and minoritized students: An emergent model. Journal of College Student Development, 57(8), 925–942. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2016.0091
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walton, G. M., & Cohen, G. L. (2011). A brief social-belonging intervention improves academic and health outcomes of minority students. Science, 331(6023), 1447–1451. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1198364
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ward, C., Stuart, J., & Kus, L. (2011). The construction and validation of a measure of ethno-cultural identity conflict. Journal of Personality Assessment, 93(5), 462–473. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2011.558872
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, C. D., Byrd, C. M., Quintana, S. M., Anicama, C., Kiang, L., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Calzada, E. J., Pabón Gautier, M. C., Ejesi, K., Tuitt, N. R., Martinez-Fuentes, S., White, L., Marks, A. K., Rogers, L. O., & Whitesell, N. (2020). A lifespan model of ethnic-racial identity. Research in Human Development, 17(2–3), 99–129. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427609.2020.1831882
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, C. D., Lozada, F. T., Hood, K. B., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Jahromi, L. B., & Updegraff, K. A. (2022). Mexican-origin 5-year-old children’s ethnic-racial identity centrality and attitudes predicting social functioning. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 28(2), 158–170. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427609.2020.1831882
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Willis, H. A., Sosoo, E. E., Bernard, D. L., Neal, A., & Neblett, E. W. (2021). The associations between internalized racism, racial identity, and psychological distress. Emerging Adulthood, 9(4), 384–400. https://doi.org/10.1177/21676968211005598
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yancey, A. K., Aneshensel, C. S., & Driscoll, A. K. (2001). The assessment of ethnic identity in a diverse urban youth population. Journal of Black Psychology, 27(2), 190–208. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798401027002003
   Google Scholar
• Yoon, E., Jung, K. R., Lee, R. M., & Felix-Mora, M. (2012). Validation of social connectedness in mainstream society and the ethnic community scales. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 18(1), 64–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0026600
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar