Exploring Trajectories of Young Mothers’ Parenting Stress in Early Childhood: Associations with Protective Factors and Psychological Vulnerabilities

REFERENCES

• Abidin, R. (1995). Parenting Stress Index (3rd ed.). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Adirim, T., & Supplee, L. (2013). Overview of the federal home visiting program. Pediatrics, 132(Supplement 2), S59. doi:10.1542/peds.2013-1021C
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Anthony, L. G., Anthony, B. J., Glanville, D. N., Naiman, D. Q., Waanders, C., & Shaffer, S. (2005). The relationships between parenting stress, parenting behaviour and preschoolers’ social competence and behaviour problems in the classroom. Infant and Child Development, 14(2), 133–154. doi:10.1002/icd.385
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arminger, G., Stein, P., & Wittenberg, J. (1999). Mixtures of conditional mean- and covariance-structure models. Psychometrika, 64(4), 475–494. doi:10.1007/BF02294568
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ashford, J., Smit, F., van Lier, P. A. C., Cuijpers, P., & Koot, H. M. (2008). Early risk indicators of internalizing problems in late childhood: A 9-year longitudinal study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49(7), 774–780. doi:10.1111/j.14697610.2008.01889.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asparouhov, T., & Muthén, B. (2014a). Auxiliary variables in mixture modeling: Three-step approaches using Mplus. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 21(3), 329–341. doi:10.1080/10705511.2014.915181
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asparouhov, T., & Muthén, B. (2014b). Auxiliary variables in mixture modeling: Using the BCH method in Mplus to estimate a distal outcome model and an arbitrary secondary model. Mplus Web Notes, 21(2). Retrieved from https://www.statmodel.com/examples/webnotes/webnote21.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Azzi-Lessing, L. (2011). Home visitation programs: Critical issues and future directions. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 26(4), 387–398. doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2011.03.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balaji, A. B., Claussen, A. H., Smith, D. C., Visser, S. N., Morales, M. J., & Perou, R. (2007). Social support networks and maternal mental health and well-being. Journal of Women’s Health (2002), 16(10), 1386–1396. doi:10.1089/jwh.2007.CDC10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barroso, N. E., Hungerford, G. M., Garcia, D., Graziano, P. A., & Bagner, D. M. (2016). Psychometric properties of the parenting stress index-short form (PSI-SF) in a high-risk sample of mothers and their infants. Psychological Assessment, 28(10), 1331–1335. doi:10.1037/pas0000257
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bayer, J. K., Hiscock, H., Ukoumunne, O. C., Price, A., & Wake, M. (2008). Early childhood aetiology of mental health problems: A longitudinal population-based study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 49(11), 1166–1174. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01943.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beck, A. T., & Alford, B. A. (2009). Depression: Causes and treatment (2nd ed.). Baltimore, MD, US: University of Pennsylvania Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bergh van den, M., & Vermunt, J. K. (2018). Building latent class growth trees. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 25(3), 331–342. doi:10.1080/10705511.2017.1389610
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berlin, K. S., Parra, G. R., & Williams, N. A. (2014). An introduction to latent variable mixture modeling (part 2): Longitudinal latent class growth analysis and growth mixture models. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 39(2), 188–203. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jst085
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berryhill, M. B., & Durtschi, J. A. (2017). Understanding single mothers’ parenting stress trajectories. Marriage & Family Review, 53(3), 227–245. doi:10.1080/01494929.2016.1204406
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bornstein, M. H., Putnick, D. L., & Suwalsky, J. T. D. (2012). A longitudinal process analysis of mother-child emotional relationships in a rural Appalachian European American community. American Journal of Community Psychology, 50(1–2), 89–100. doi:10.1007/s10464-011-9479-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bost, K. K., Cox, M. J., Burchinal, M. R., & Payne, C. (2002). Structural and supportive changes in couples’ family and friendship networks across the transition to parenthood. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64(2), 517–531. doi:10.1111/j.17413737.2002.00517.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Budd, K. S., Holdsworth, M. J. A., & HoganBruen, K. D. (2006). Antecedents and concomitants of parenting stress in adolescent mothers in foster care. Child Abuse & Neglect, 30(5), 557–574. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2005.11.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bunting, L., & McAuley, C. (2004). Research review: Teenage pregnancy and parenthood: The role of fathers. Child and Family Social Work, 9, 295–303. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2206.2004.00335.x
   Google Scholar
• Campbell, S. B., Cohn, J. F., Flanagan, C., Popper, S., & Meyers, T. (1992). Course and correlates of postpartum depression during the transition to parenthood. Development and Psychopathology, 4(1), 29–47. doi:10.1017/S095457940000554X
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang, Y., & Fine, M. A. (2007). Modeling parenting stress trajectories among low-income young mothers across the child’s second and third years: Factors accounting for stability and change. Journal of Family Psychology, 21(4), 584–594. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.21.4.584
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coley, R. L., & Chase-Lansdale, P. L. (1998). Adolescent pregnancy and parenthood: Recent evidence and future directions. American Psychologist, 53(2), 152–166. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.53.2.152
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conger, R. D., & Donnellan, M. B. (2007). An interactionist perspective on the socioeconomic context of human development. Annual Review of Psychology, 58(1), 175–199. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085551
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cox, M. J., Paley, B., & Harter, K. (2001). Interparental conflict and parent-child relationships. In J. H. Grych & F. D. Fincham (Eds.), Interparental conflict and child development (pp. 249–272). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Crnic, K., & Ross, E. (2017). Parenting stress and parental efficacy. In K. Deater-Deckard & R. Panneton (Eds.), Parental stress and early child development: Adaptive and maladaptive outcomes (pp. 267–280). Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Crnic, K. A., Gaze, C., & Hoffman, C. (2005). Cumulative parenting stress across the preschool period: Relations to maternal parenting and child behaviour at age 5. Infant and Child Development, 14(2), 117–132. doi:10.1002/icd.384
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daro, D., McCurdy, K., Falconnier, L., & Stojanovic, D. (2003). Sustaining new parents in home visitation services: Key participant and program factors. Child Abuse & Neglect, 27(10), 1101–1125. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2003.09.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deater-Deckard, K. (1998). Parenting stress and child adjustment: Some old hypotheses and new questions. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 5(3), 314–332. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2850.1998.tb00152.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deater-Deckard, K., & Panneton, R. (2017). Unearthing the developmental and intergenerational dynamics in parent and child functioning. In K. Deater-Deckard & R. Panneton (Eds.), Parental stress and early child development: Adaptive and maladaptive outcomes (pp. 1–10). Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Deater‐Deckard, K. (2005). Parenting stress and children’s development: Introduction to the special issue. Infant and Child Development, 14(2), 111–115. doi:10.1002/icd.383
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deater-Deckard, K. D. (2004). Parenting stress. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. doi:10.12987/yale/9780300103939.001.0001
   Google Scholar
• Devereux, P. G., Weigel, D. J., Ballard-Reisch, D., Leigh, G., & Cahoon, K. L. (2009). Immediate and longer-term connections between support and stress in pregnant/parenting and non-pregnant/non-parenting adolescents. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 26(5), 431–446. doi:10.1007/s10560-009-0175-z
   Google Scholar
• Duggan, A., Portilla, X. A., Filene, J. H., Crowne, S. S., Hill, C. J., Lee, H., & Knox, V. (2018). Implementation of evidence-based early childhood home visiting: Results from the mother and infant home visiting program evaluation. Washington, DC: Office of Planning, Research, and Evaluation, Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
   Google Scholar
• Easterbrooks, M. A., Chaudhuri, J. H., Bartlett, J. D., & Copeman, A. (2011). Resilience in parenting among young mothers: Family and ecological risks and opportunities. Children and Youth Services Review, 33(1), 42–50. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2010.08.010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans, G. W. (2004). The environment of childhood poverty. American Psychologist, 59(2), 77–92. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.59.2.77
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farmer, A. Y., & Peterson, N. A. (2012). Psychometric properties of the parental distress subscale. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 21(5), 747–753. doi:10.1007/s10826-011-9527-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feldman, B. J., Masyn, K. E., & Conger, R. D. (2009). New Approaches to studying problem behaviors: A comparison of methods for modeling longitudinal, categorical adolescent drinking data. Developmental Psychology, 45(3), 652–676. doi:10.1037/a0014851
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gee, C. B., & Rhodes, J. E. (2003). Adolescent mothers’ relationship with their children’s biological fathers: Social support, social strain and relationship continuity. Journal of Family Psychology, 17(3), 370–383. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.17.3.370
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gee, C. B., & Rhodes, J. E. (2008). A social support and social strain measure for minority adolescent mothers: A confirmatory factor analytic study. Child: Care, Health and Development, 34(1), 87–97. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2214.2007.00754.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldberg, J., Greenstone Winestone, J., Fauth, R., Colón, M., & Mingo, M. V. (2018). Getting to the warm hand-off: A study of home visitor referral activities. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 22(1), 22–32. doi:10.1007/s10995-018-2529-7
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Goodman, S. H., Rouse, M. H., Connell, A. M., Broth, M. R., Hall, C. M., & Heyward, D. (2011). Maternal depression and child psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14(1), 1–27. doi:10.1007/s10567-010-0080-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green, B. L., Tarte, J. M., Harrison, P. M., Nygren, M., & Sanders, M. B. (2014). Results from a randomized trial of the healthy families Oregon accredited statewide program: Early program impacts on parenting. Children and Youth Services Review, 44, 288–298. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.06.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grimm, K. J., Ram, N., & Estabrook, R. (2017). Growth modeling: Structural equation and multilevel modeling approaches. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Halpern-Meekin, S., & Turney, K. (2016). Relationship churning and parenting stress among mothers and fathers. Journal of Marriage and Family, 78(3), 715–729. doi:10.1111/jomf.12297
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hammen, C. (2005). Stress and depression. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1, 293–319. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.143938
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holbrook, A. (2011). Self-reported measure. In P. J. Lavrakas (Ed.), Encyclopedia of survey research methods (pp. 805–806). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Howard, K. S., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2009). The role of home-visiting programs in preventing child abuse and neglect. The Future of Children, 19(2), 119–146. doi:10.1353/foc.0.0032
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang, C. Y., Costeines, J., Kaufman, J. S., & Ayala, C. (2014). Parenting stress, social support, and depression for ethnic minority adolescent mothers: Impact on child development. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 23(2), 255–262. doi:10.1007/s10826-013-9807-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobs, F., Easterbrooks, M. A., Goldberg, J., Mistry, J., Bumgarner, E., Raskin, M., … Fauth, R. (2016). Improving adolescent parenting: Results from a randomized controlled trial of a home visiting program for young families. American Journal of Public Health, 106(2), 342–349. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2015.302919
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaffee, S. R. (2002). Pathways to adversity in young adulthood among early childbearers. Journal of Family Psychology, 16(1), 38–49. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.16.1.38
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalil, A., Ziol-Guest, K. M., & Coley, R. L. (2005). Perceptions of father involvement patterns in teenage-mother families: Predictors and links to mothers’ psychological adjustment. Family Relations, 54(2), 197–211. doi:10.2307/40005249
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein, J. D. (2005). Adolescent pregnancy: Current trends and issues. Pediatrics, 116(1), 281–286. doi:10.1542/peds.2005-0999
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koster, E. H. W., De Lissnyder, E., Derakshan, N., & De Raedt, R. (2011). Understanding depressive rumination from a cognitive science perspective: The impaired disengagement hypothesis. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(1), 138–145. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.08.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krieg, D. B. (2007). Does motherhood get easier the second-time around? Examining parenting stress and marital quality among mothers having their first or second child. Parenting, 7(2), 149–175. doi:10.1080/15295190701306912
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar, N. R., Danilack, V. A., Ware, C. F., & Phipps, M. G. (2018). Adolescent mothers’ relationships with their mothers and their babies’ fathers during pregnancy and postpartum. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27(9), 2862–2870. doi:10.1007/s10826-018-1127-z
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lanzi, R. G., Bert, S. C., & Jacobs, B. K. (2009). Depression among a sample of first time adolescent and adult mothers. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing: Official Publication of the Association of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nurses, Inc, 22(4), 194–202. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6171.2009.00199.x
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Larson, N. C. (2004). Parenting stress among adolescent mothers in the transition to adulthood. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 21(5), 457–476. doi:10.1023/B:CASW.0000043359.38426.b4
   Google Scholar
• Lee, S.-Y., & Song, X.-Y. (2003). Bayesian analysis of structural equation models with dichotomous variables. Statistics in Medicine, 22(19), 3073–3088. doi:10.1002/sim.1544
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leigh, B., & Milgrom, J. (2008). Risk factors for antenatal depression, postnatal depression and parenting stress. BMC Psychiatry, 8, 24. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-8-24
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Letourneau, N. L., Stewart, M. J., & Barnfather, A. K. (2004). Adolescent mothers: Support needs, resources, and support-education interventions. Journal of Adolescent Health, 35(6), 509–525. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2004.01.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leventhal, T., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2000). The neighborhoods they live in: The effects of neighborhood residence on child and adolescent outcomes. Psychological Bulletin, 126(2), 309–337. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.126.2.309
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Little, T. D. (2013). Longitudinal structural equation modeling. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lo, Y., Mendell, N. R., & Rubin, D. B. (2001). Testing the number of components in a normal mixture. Biometrika, 88(3), 767–778. doi:10.1093/biomet/88.3.767
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Logsdon, M. C., Birkimer, J. C., Ratterman, A., Cahill, K., & Cahill, N. (2002). Social support in pregnant and parenting adolescents: Research, critique, and recommendations. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 15(2), 75. doi:10.1111/jcap.2002.15.issue-2
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lovejoy, M. C., Graczyk, P. A., O’Hare, E., & Neuman, G. (2000). Maternal depression and parenting behavior: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 20(5), 561–592. doi:10.1016/S0272-7358(98)00100-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin, A., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2015). Has adolescent childbearing been eclipsed by nonmarital childbearing? Societies, 5(4), 734–743. doi:10.3390/soc5040734
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masyn, K. E. (2013). Latent class analysis and finite mixture modeling. In T. D. Little (Ed.), Oxford library of psychology. The Oxford handbook of quantitative methods: Statistical analysis (pp. 551–611). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Misri, S., Reebye, P., Milis, L., & Shah, S. (2006). The impact of treatment intervention on parenting stress in postpartum depressed mothers: A prospective study. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 76(1), 115–119. doi:10.1037/0002-9432.76.1.115
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mollborn, S., & Dennis, J. A. (2012). Investigating the life situations and development of teenage mothers’ children: Evidence from the ECLS-B. Population Research and Policy Review, 31(1), 31–66. doi:10.1007/s11113-011-9218-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mollborn, S., & Morningstar, E. (2009). Investigating the relationship between teenage childbearing and psychological distress using longitudinal evidence. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 50(3), 310–326. doi:10.1177/002214650905000305
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mulsow, M., Caldera, Y. M., Pursley, M., Reifman, A., & Huston, A. C. (2002). Multilevel factors influencing maternal stress during the first three years. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64(4), 944–956. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2002.00944.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muthén, B., & Muthén, L. K. (2000). Integrating person-centered and variable-centered analyses: Growth mixture modeling with latent trajectory classes. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 24(6), 882–891. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2000.tb02070.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998/2018). Mplus user’s guide: statistical analysis with latent variables: User’s guide (7th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.
   Google Scholar
• Nagin, D. S., Lynam, D., Raudenbush, S., & Roeder, K. (1999). Analyzing developmental trajectories: A semiparametric, group-based approach. Psychological Methods, 4, 139–157. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.4.2.139
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nair, P., Schuler, M. E., Black, M. M., Kettinger, L., & Harrington, D. (2003). Cumulative environmental risk in substance abusing women: Early intervention, parenting stress, child abuse potential and child development. Child Abuse & Neglect, 27(9), 997–1017. doi:10.1016/S0145-2134(03)00169-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naughton, M. J., & Wiklund, I. (1993). A critical review of dimension-specific measures of health-related quality of life in cross-cultural research. Quality of Life Research, 2(6), 397–432. doi:10.1007/BF00422216
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neece, C. L., Green, S. A., & Baker, B. L. (2012). Parenting stress and child behavior problems: A transactional relationship across time. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 117(1), 48–66. doi:10.1352/1944-7558-117.1.48
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nomaguchi, K., & Milkie, M. (2017). Sociological perspectives on parenting stress: How social structure and culture shape parental strain and the well-being of parents and children. In K. Deater-Deckard & R. Panneton (Eds.), Parental stress and early child development: Adaptive and maladaptive outcomes (pp. 47–74). Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Nomaguchi, K., Brown, S., & Leyman, T. M. (2017). Fathers’ participation in parenting and maternal parenting stress: Variation by relationship status. Journal of Family Issues, 38(8), 1132–1156. doi:10.1177/0192513X15623586
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nylund, K. L., Asparouhov, T., & Muthén, B. O. (2007). Deciding on the number of classes in latent class analysis and growth mixture modeling: A monte carlo simulation study. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 14(4), 535–569. doi:10.1080/10705510701575396
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Östberg, M., Hagekull, B., & Hagelin, E. (2007). Stability and prediction of parenting stress. Infant and Child Development, 16(2), 207–223. doi:10.1002/icd.516
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peacock, S., Konrad, S., Watson, E., Nickel, D., & Muhajarine, N. (2013). Effectiveness of home visiting programs on child outcomes: A systematic review. BMC Public Health, 13, 17. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-13-17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petterson, S. M., & Albers, A. B. (2001). Effects of poverty and maternal depression on early child development. Child Development, 72(6), 1794–1813. doi:10.1111/cdev.2001.72.issue-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pierce, G. R., Sarason, I. G., & Sarason, B. R. (1991). General and relationship-based perceptions of social support: Are two constructs better than one? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(6), 1028–1039. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.61.6.1028
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2012). Sources of method bias in social science research and recommendations on how to control it. Annual Review of Psychology, 63(1), 539–569. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100452
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale a self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401. doi:10.1177/014662167700100306
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raikes, H. H., & Emde, R. N. (2006). Early head start: A bold new program for low-income infants and toddlers. In N. F. Watt, C. Ayoub, R. H. Bradley, J. E. Puma, & W. A. LeBoeuf (Eds.), Child psychology and mental health. The crisis in youth mental health: Critical issues and effective programs, Vol. 4: Early intervention programs and policies (pp. 181–206). Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers/Greenwood Publishing Group.
   Google Scholar
• Raskin, M., Easterbrooks, M. A., Lamoreau, R. S., Kotake, C., & Goldberg, J. (2016). Depression trajectories of antenatally depressed and nondepressed young mothers: Implications for child socioemotional development. Women’s Health Issues, 26(3), 344–350. doi:10.1016/j.whi.2016.02.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reiner, I., Beutel, M., Skaletz, C., Brähler, E., & Stöbel-Richter, Y. (2012). Validating the German version of the quality of relationships inventory: Confirming the three-factor structure and report of psychometric properties. PloS One, 7, 5. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0037380
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ryan, R. M., Tolani, N., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2009). Relationship trajectories, parenting stress, and unwed mothers’ transition to a new baby. Parenting: Science and Practice, 9(1–2), 160–177. doi:10.1080/15295190802656844
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sameroff, A. (2010). A unified theory of development: A dialectic integration of nature and nurture. Child Development, 81(1), 6–22. doi:10.1111/cdev.2010.81.issue-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwarz, G. (1978). Estimating the dimension of a model. The Annals of Statistics, 6(2), 461–464. doi:10.1214/aos/1176344136
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharp, L. K., & Lipsky, M. S. (2002). Screening for depression across the lifespan. American Family Physician, 66, 1001–1008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spencer, M. S., Kalil, A., Larson, N. C., Spieker, S. J., & Gilchrist, L. D. (2002). Multigenerational coresidence and childrearing conflict: Links to parenting stress in teenage mothers across the first two years postpartum. Applied Developmental Science, 6(3), 157–170. doi:10.1207/S1532480XADS0603_5
   Google Scholar
• Tamis-Lemonda, C. S., Shannon, J., & Spellmann, M. (2002). Low-income adolescent mothers’ knowledge about domains of child development. Infant Mental Health Journal, 23(1–2), 88–103. doi:10.1002/imhj.10006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas, J. L., Jones, G. N., Scarinci, I. C., Mehan, D. J., & Brantley, P. J. (2001). The utility of the CES-D as a depression screening measure among low-income women attending primary care clinics. The Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression. International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine, 31(1), 25–40. doi:10.2190/FUFR-PK9F-6U10-JXRK
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trivette, C., & Dunst, C. (1988). Personal Network Matrix. In C. Dunst, C. Trivette, & A. Deal (Eds.), Enabling and empowering families: Principles and guidelines for practice (pp. 149–151). Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books.
   Google Scholar
• Tufts Interdisciplinary Evaluation Research. (2017). The Massachusetts healthy families evaluation-2 early childhood (MHFE-2EC): Follow-up study of a randomized, controlled trial of a statewide home visiting program for young parents. Final report to Massachusetts Department of Public Health, Children’s Trust of Massachusetts. Medford, MA. Retrieved from http://ase.tufts.edu/tier/documents/tuftsFinalReportFull2017.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Verhofstadt, L. L., Buysse, A., Rosseel, Y., & Peene, O. J. (2006). Confirming the three-factor structure of the quality of relationships inventory within couples. Psychological Assessment, 18(1), 15–21. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.18.1.15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whipple, E. E., & Webster-Stratton, C. (1991). The role of parental stress in physically abusive families. Child Abuse & Neglect, 15(3), 279–291. doi:10.1016/0145-2134(91)90072-L
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williford, A. P., Calkins, S. D., & Keane, S. P. (2007). Predicting change in parenting stress across early childhood: Child and maternal factors. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35(2), 251–263. doi:10.1007/s10802-006-9082-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yearwood, K., Vliegen, N., Luyten, P., Chau, C., Corveleyn, J., & Leuven, K. U. (2018). Validation of the quality of relationships inventory in a Perruvian sample of adolescents and associations to peer attachment. Psykhe, 27(1), 1–11. doi:10.7764/psykhe.27.1.1122
   Google Scholar