Exploring Biphobia Among Heterosexuals and LGBTQ + Individuals in Spain: Psychometric Properties of the Biphobia Scale in a Spanish Sample

References

• Alencar Albuquerque, G., de Lima Garcia, C., da Silva Quirino, G., Alves, M. J. H., Belém, J. M., dos Santos Figueiredo, F. W., da Silva Paiva, L., do Nascimento, V. B., da Silva Maciel, É., Valenti, V. E., de Abreu, L. C., & Adami, F. (2016). Access to health services by lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender persons: Systematic literature review. BMC International Health and Human Rights, 16(1), 2. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12914-015-0072-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Almeida, J., Johnson, R. M., Corliss, H. L., Molnar, B. E., & Azrael, D. (2009). Emotional distress among LGBT youth: The influence of perceived discrimination based on sexual orientation. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38(7), 1001–1014. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-009-9397-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Educational Research Association (AERA), American Psychological Association (APA), and National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME). (2014). Standards for educational and psychological testing. American Educational Research Association.
   Google Scholar
• Amigo-Ventureira, A. M., Depalma, R., & Durán-Bouza, M. (2022). Homophobia and transphobia among Spanish practicing and future teachers. American Journal of Sexuality Education, 17(3), 277–303. https://doi.org/10.1080/15546128.2022.2035290
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balsam, K. F., & Mohr, J. J. (2007). Adaptation to sexual orientation stigma: A comparison of bisexual and lesbian/gay adults. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(3), 306–319. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.54.3.306
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnes, D. M., & Meyer, I. H. (2012). Religious affiliation, internalized homophobia, and mental health in lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 82(4), 505–515. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.2012.01185.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bender, A. K., & Lauritsen, J. L. (2021). Violent victimization among lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations in the United States: Findings from the National Crime Victimization Survey, 2017–2018. American Journal of Public Health, 111(2), 318–326. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2020.306017
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berlan, E. D., Corliss, H. L., Field, A. E., Goodman, E., & Austin, S. B. (2010). Sexual orientation and bullying among adolescents in the growing up today study. The Journal of Adolescent Health: Official Publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine, 46(4), 366–371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.10.015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bishop, C. J., & Pynoo, E. (2022). How well are outgroup attitudes and behaviours toward bisexual individuals measured? A systematic review of the psychometric properties of binegativity measures. Psychology & Sexuality, 13(2), 182–200. https://doi.org/10.1080/19419899.2020.1756390
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewster, M. E., & Moradi, B. (2010). Perceived experiences of anti-bisexual prejudice: Instrument development and evaluation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 57(4), 451–468. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021116
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• COGAM Asociación LGTBI+. (2022). LGTBFobia en las aulas 2021/2022. Cogam. https://cogam.es/informe-lgtbifobia-en-las-aulas-2021-22/
   Google Scholar
• Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Erlbaum Associates.
   Google Scholar
• Curran, P. J., West, S. G., & Finch, J. F. (1996). The robustness of test statistics to nonnormality and specification error in confirmatory factor analysis. Psychological Methods, 1(1), 16–29. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.1.1.16
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Currie, M. R., Cunningham, E. G., & Findlay, B. M. (2004). The Short Internalized Homonegativity Scale: Examination of the factorial structure of a new measure of internalized homophobia. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 64(6), 1053–1067. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164404264845
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davies, M. (2004). Correlates of negative attitudes toward gay men: Sexism, male role norms, and male sexuality. Journal of Sex Research, 41(3), 259–266. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490409552233
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de la Rubia, J. M. (2013). Dimensionalidad, consistencia interna y distribución de la Escala Homonegatividad Internalizada en estudiantes mexicanos de Ciencias de la Salud [Dimensionality, internal consistency and distribution of the Internalized Homonegativity Scale in Mexican students of Health Sciences]. Acta de Investigación Psicológica, 3, 986–1004. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2007-4719(13)70947-5
   Google Scholar
• Dierckx, M., Meier, P., & Motmans, J. (2017). “Beyond the box”: A comprehensive study of sexist, homophobic, and transphobic attitudes among the Belgian population. DiGeSt. Journal of Diversity and Gender Studies, 4(1), 5–34. https://doi.org/10.11116/digest.4.1.1
   Google Scholar
• Doan Van, E. E., Mereish, E. H., Woulfe, J. M., & Katz-Wise, S. L. (2019). Perceived discrimination, coping mechanisms, and effects on health in bisexual and other non-monosexual adults. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 48(1), 159–174. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-018-1254-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dodge, B., Herbenick, D., Friedman, M. R., Schick, V., Fu, T.-C J., Bostwick, W., Bartelt, E., Muñoz-Laboy, M., Pletta, D., Reece, M., & Sandfort, T. G. M. (2016). Attitudes toward bisexual men and women among a nationally representative probability sample of adults in the United States. PloS One, 11(10), e0164430. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0164430
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dodge, B., Schnarrs, P. W., Reece, M., Martinez, O., Goncalves, G., Malebranche, D., Van Der Pol, B., Nix, R., & Fortenberry, J. D. (2012). Individual and social factors related to mental health concerns among bisexual men in the Midwestern United States. Journal of Bisexuality, 12(2), 223–245. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299716.2012.674862
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Effrig, J. C., Bieschke, K. J., & Locke, B. D. (2011). Examining victimization and psychological distress in transgender college students. Journal of College Counseling, 14(2), 143–157. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1882.2011.tb00269.x
   Google Scholar
• Eliason, M. J. (1997). The prevalence and nature of biphobia in heterosexual undergraduate students. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 26(3), 317–326. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024527032040
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elipe, P., de la Oliva Muñoz, M., & Del Rey, R. (2018). Homophobic bullying and cyberbullying: Study of a silenced problem. Journal of Homosexuality, 65(5), 672–686. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2017.1333809
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elosua, P., Mujika, J., Almeida, L. S., & Hermosilla, D. (2014). Procedimientos analítico-racionales en la adaptación de tests. Adaptación al español de la batería de pruebas de razonamiento [Analytical-rational procedures in the adaptation of tests. Adaptation to Spanish of the battery of reasoning test]. Revista Latinoamericana de Psicología, 46(2), 117–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0120-0534(14)70015-9
   Google Scholar
• Expósito, F., Moya, M. C., & Glick, P. (1998). Sexismo ambivalente: medición y correlatos. [Ambivalent sexism: Measurement and correlates]. Revista de Psicología Social, 13(2), 159–169. https://doi.org/10.1174/021347498760350641
   Google Scholar
• Feijóo, S., & Rodríguez-Fernández, R. (2021). A meta-analytical review of gender-based school bullying in Spain. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(23), 12687. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182312687
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ficarrotto, T. J. (1990). Racism, sexism, and erotophobia: Attitudes of heterosexuals toward homosexuals. Journal of Homosexuality, 19(1), 111–116. https://doi.org/10.1300/J082v19n01_07
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friedman, M. R., Dodge, B., Schick, V., Herbenick, D., Hubach, R., Bowling, J., Goncalves, G., Krier, S., & Reece, M. (2014). From bias to bisexual health disparities: Attitudes toward bisexual men and women in the United States. LGBT Health, 1(4), 309–318. https://doi.org/10.1089/lgbt.2014.0005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galupo, M. P. (2006). Sexism, heterosexism, and biphobia: The framing of bisexual women’s friendships. Journal of Bisexuality, 6(3), 35–45. https://doi.org/10.1300/J159v06n03_03
   Google Scholar
• Garelick, A. S., Filip-Crawford, G., Varley, A. H., Nagoshi, C. T., Nagoshi, J. L., & Evans, R. (2017). Beyond the binary: Exploring the role of ambiguity in biphobia and transphobia. Journal of Bisexuality, 17, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299716.2017.1319890
   Google Scholar
• Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (1996). The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(3), 491–512. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.491
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glick, P., Wilkerson, M., & Cuffe, M. (2015). Masculine identity, ambivalent sexism, and attitudes toward gender subtypes. Social Psychology, 46(4), 210–217. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000228
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• González, M., & Kokozos, M. J. (2019). Prejudice reduction in public schools: A dialogic approach. Journal of Educational Research and Practice, 9(1), 24. https://doi.org/10.5590/JERAP.2019.09.1.24
   Google Scholar
• Hawthorne, O., Camic, P. M., & Rimes, K. A. (2020). Understanding the structure, experiences and challenges of social support for older lesbian, gay and bisexual people: A systematic review. Ageing and Society, 40(2), 282–305. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X18000910
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hertlein, K. M., Hartwell, E. E., & Munns, M. E. (2016). Attitudes toward bisexuality according to sexual orientation and gender. Journal of Bisexuality, 16(3), 339–360. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299716.2016.1200510
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, J. M. (2021, February 24). LGBT identification rises to 5.6% in latest U.S. estimate. Optumhealtheducation. https://www.optumhealtheducation.com/sites/default/files/LGBT%20Identification%20Rises%20to%205.6%25%20in%20Latest%20U.S.%20Estimate.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. B., & Martin, C. E. (1998). Sexual behavior in the human male. Indiana University Press. (Original published 1948).
   Google Scholar
• Krumpal, I. (2013). Determinants of social desirability bias in sensitive surveys: A literature review. Quality & Quantity, 47(4), 2025–2047. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-011-9640-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ledesma, R. D., & Valero-Mora, P. (2019). Determining the number of factors to retain in EFA: An easy-to-use computer program for carrying out parallel analysis. Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation, 12(1), 2. https://doi.org/10.7275/wjnc-nm63
   Google Scholar
• López-Sáez, M. Á., & García-Dauder, D. (2020). Los test de masculinidad/feminidad como tecnologías psicológicas de control de género [Masculinity/femininity tests as psychological technologies of gender control]. Athenea Digital. Revista de pensamiento e investigación social, 20(2), 2521. https://doi.org/10.5565/rev/athenea.2521
   Google Scholar
• MacCallum, R. C., Widaman, K. F., Zhang, S., & Hong, S. (1999). Sample size in factor analysis. Psychological Methods, 4(1), 84–99. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.4.1.84
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Makwana, A. P., Dhont, K., De Keersmaecker, J., Akhlaghi-Ghaffarokh, P., Masure, M., & Roets, A. (2018). The motivated cognitive basis of transphobia: The roles of right-wing ideologies and gender role beliefs. Sex Roles, 79(3–4), 206–217. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0860-x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129(5), 674–697. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.674
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mittal, I., Ronzón-Tirado, R., Charak, R., & Cano-Gonzalez, I. (2022). Experiences of Microaggressions, Discrimination, & Exclusion within the LGBTQ + Community in Spain. MEDI 9331 Scholarly Activities Clinical Years, 65, 5–6.
   Google Scholar
• Mohr, J. J., & Rochlen, A. B. (1999). Measuring attitudes regarding bisexuality in lesbian, gay male, and heterosexual populations. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 46(3), 353–369. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.46.3.353
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morrison, M. A., Bishop, C. J., & Morrison, T. G. (2019). A systematic review of the psychometric properties of composite LGBT prejudice and discrimination scales. Journal of Homosexuality, 66(4), 549–570. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2017.1422935
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mulick, P. S., & Wright, L. W.Jr. (2002). Examining the existence of biphobia in the heterosexual and homosexual populations. Journal of Bisexuality, 2(4), 45–64. https://doi.org/10.1300/J159v02n04_03
   Google Scholar
• Mulick, P. S., & Wright, L. W.Jr. (2011). The biphobia scale a decade later: Reflections and additions. Journal of Bisexuality, 11(4), 453–457. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299716.2011.620486
   Google Scholar
• Muñiz, J., Elosua, P., & Hambleton, R. K. (2013). Directrices para la traducción y adaptación de los tests: segunda edición [Guidelines for the translation and adaptation of tests: Second edition]. Psicothema, 25(2), 151–157. https://doi.org/10.7334/psicothema2013.24
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nagoshi, J. L., Adams, K. A., Terrell, H. K., Hill, E. D., Brzuzy, S., & Nagoshi, C. T. (2008). Gender differences in correlates of homophobia and transphobia. Sex Roles, 59(7–8), 521–531. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9458-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nagoshi, C. T., Bechky, A., Nagoshi, J., & Pillai, V. K. (2023). For straight persons, correlates of biphobia are mostly the same as for homophobia. Journal of Bisexuality, 23(2), 115–125. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299716.2022.2106607
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ochs, R. (1996). Biphobia: It goes more than two ways. In B. A. Firestein (Ed.), Bisexuality: The psychology and politics of an invisible minority (pp. 217–239). Sage Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Parent, M. C. (2012). Content mapping and operationalization of stereotypes about lesbian women, gay men, bisexual women, and bisexual men [Doctoral dissertation]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 3586631)
   Google Scholar
• Persson, T. J., & Pfaus, J. G. (2015). Bisexuality and mental health: Future research directions. Journal of Bisexuality, 15(1), 82–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299716.2014.994694
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pompili, M., Lester, D., Forte, A., Seretti, M. E., Erbuto, D., Lamis, D. A., Amore, M., & Girardi, P. (2014). Bisexuality and suicide: A systematic review of the current literature. The Journal of Sexual Medicine, 11(8), 1903–1913. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsm.12581
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poushter, J., & Kent, N. O. (2020, August 3). The global divide on homosexuality persists but increasing acceptance in many countries over past two decades. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2020/06/25/global-divide-on-homosexualitypersists
   Google Scholar
• Price, M. N., Green, A. E., DeChants, J. P., & Davis, C. K. (2023). Physical dating violence victimization among LGBTQ youth: Disclosure and association with mental health. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 38(15–16), 9059–9085. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605231162655
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• R Core Team. (2021). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. https://www.R- project.org/
   Google Scholar
• Raja, S., & Stokes, J. P. (1998). Assessing attitudes toward lesbians and gay men: The modern homophobia scale. International Journal of Sexuality and Gender Studies, 3(2), 113–134. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023244427281
   Google Scholar
• Reise, S. P. (2012). The rediscovery of bifactor measurement models. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 47(5), 667–696. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2012.715555
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reise, S. P., Scheines, R., Widaman, K. F., & Haviland, M. G. (2013). Multidimensionality and structural coefficient bias in structural equation modeling: A bifactor perspective. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 73(1), 5–26. https://doi.org/10.1177/00131644124498
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodríguez-Castro, Y., Lameiras-Fernández, M., Carrera-Fernández, V., & Vallejo- Medina, P. (2013). Validación de la escala de homofobia moderna en una muestra de adolescentes [Validation of the modern homophobia scale in a sample of adolescents]. Anales de Psicología, 29(2), 523–533. https://doi.org/10.6018/analesps.29.2.137931
   Google Scholar
• Ross, L. E., Salway, T., Tarasoff, L. A., MacKay, J. M., Hawkins, B. W., & Fehr, C. P. (2018). Prevalence of depression and anxiety among bisexual people compared to gay, lesbian, and heterosexual individuals: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Sex Research, 55(4-5), 435–456. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2017.1387755
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rouquette, A., & Falissard, B. (2011). Sample size requirements for the internal validation of psychiatric scales. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 20(4), 235–249. https://doi.org/10.1002/mpr.352
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saewyc, E. M. (2011). Research on adolescent sexual orientation: Development, health disparities, stigma, and resilience. Journal of Research on Adolescence: The Official Journal of the Society for Research on Adolescence, 21(1), 256–272. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00727.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sánchez-Fuentes, M. M., Moyano, N., Gómez-Berrocal, C., & Sierra, J. C. (2020). Invariance of the Sexual Double Standard Scale: A cross-cultural study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(5), 1569. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17051569
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seelman, K. L., Woodford, M. R., & Nicolazzo, Z. (2017). Victimization and microaggressions targeting LGBTQ college students: Gender identity as a moderator of psychological distress. Journal of Ethnic & Cultural Diversity in Social Work, 26(1–2), 112–125. https://doi.org/10.1080/15313204.2016.1263816
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Somos LGBT+. (2017). Informe sobre homofobia, lesbofobia, bifobia y transfobia en las aulas aragonesas. FELGTB. https://www.felgtb.com/ciberbullying/materiales/INFORME%20LGTBIFOBIA%20EN%20LAS%20AULAS%20ARAGON.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Sue, D. W. (2010). Microaggressions in everyday life: Race, gender, and sexual orientation. John Wiley & Sons.
   Google Scholar
• Szymanski, D. M. (2005). Heterosexism and sexism as correlates of psychological distress in lesbians. Journal of Counseling & Development, 83(3), 355–360. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6678.2005.tb00355.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trizano-Hermosilla, I., & Alvarado, J. M. (2016). Best alternatives to Cronbach’s alpha reliability in realistic conditions: Congeneric and asymmetrical measurements. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 769. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00769
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tucker, L. R., & Lewis, C. (1973). A reliability coefficient for maximum likelihood factor analysis. Psychometrika, 38(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02291170
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warriner, K., Nagoshi, C. T., & Nagoshi, J. L. (2013). Correlates of homophobia, transphobia, and internalized homophobia in gay or lesbian and heterosexual samples. Journal of Homosexuality, 60(9), 1297–1314. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2013.806177
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss, J. (2011). Reflective paper: GL versus BT: The archaeology of biphobia and transphobia within the US gay and lesbian community. Journal of Bisexuality, 11(4), 498–502. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299716.2011.620848
   Google Scholar
• Williams, T., Connolly, J., Pepler, D., & Craig, W. (2005). Peer victimization, social support, and psychosocial adjustment of sexual minority adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 34(5), 471–482. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-005-7264-x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wittgens, C., Fischer, M. M., Buspavanich, P., Theobald, S., Schweizer, K., & Trautmann, S. (2022). Mental health in people with minority sexual orientations: A meta-analysis of population-based studies. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 145(4), 357–372. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.13405
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woodford, M. R., Chonody, J. M., Kulick, A., Brennan, D. J., & Renn, K. (2015). The LGBQ microaggressions on campus scale: A scale development and validation study. Journal of Homosexuality, 62(12), 1660–1687. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2015.1078205
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar