Neuropsychological Characteristics of Highly Dissociative Healthy Individuals

REFERENCES

• American Psychiatric Association . 2003 . Diagnostisches und statistisches Manual psychischer Störungen–Textrevision ( , Göttingen, , Germany : Hogrefe . (DSM–IV–TR) [Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders 4th ed., text rev.]
   Google Scholar
• Bernstein , E. M. and Putnam , F. W. 1986 . Development, reliability, and validity of a dissociation scale . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 174 : 727 – 735 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bremner , J. D. , Randall , P. , Scott , T. M. , Bronen , R. A. , Seibyl , J. P. Southwick , S. M. 1995 . MRI-based measurement of hippocampal volume in patients with combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder . American Journal of Psychiatry , 152 : 973 – 981 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewin , C. R. 2001 . A cognitive neuroscience account of posttraumatic stress disorder and its treatment . Behaviour Research and Therapy , 39 : 373 – 393 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byrne , P. , Becker , S. and Burgess , N. 2007 . Remembering the past and imagining the future: A neural model of spatial memory and imagery . Psychological Review , 114 : 340 – 375 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cabeza , R. , Prince , S. E. , Daselaar , S. M. , Greenberg , D. L. , Budde , M. Dolcos , F. 2004 . Brain activity during episodic retrieval of autobiographical and laboratory events: An fMRI study using a novel photo paradigm . Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 16 : 1583 – 1594 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cima , M. , Merckelbach , H. , Klein , B. , Shellbach-Matties , R. and Kremer , K. 2001 . Frontal lobe dysfunctions, dissociation, and trauma self-reports in forensic psychiatric patients . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 189 : 188 – 190 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corbetta , M. , Miezin , F. M. , Shulman , G. L. and Petersen , S. E. 1993 . A PET study of visuospatial attention . Journal of Neuroscience , 13 : 1202 – 1226 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dalenberg , C. and Pales , O. G. 2004 . Relationship between child abuse history, trauma, and dissociation in Russian college students . Child Abuse & Neglect , 28 : 461 – 474 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DePrince , A. P. and Freyd , J. J. 1999 . Dissociative tendencies, attention and memory . Psychological Science , 10 : 449 – 452 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DePrince , A. P. and Freyd , J. J. 2004 . Forgetting trauma stimuli . Psychological Science , 15 : 488 – 492 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Derogatis , C. R. 1977 . SCL-90. Administration, scoring & procedures. Manual-I for the r(evised) version and other instruments of the psychopathology rating scale series , Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine .
   Google Scholar
• de Ruiter , M. B. , Phaf , R. H. , Elzinga , B. M. and van Dyck , R. 2004 . Dissociative style and individual differences in verbal working memory span . Consciousness and Cognition , 13 : 821 – 828 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• D'Espositio , M. , Detre , J. A. , Alsop , D. C. , Shin , R. K. , Atlas , S. and Grossmann , M. 1995 . The neural basis of the central executive system of working memory . Nature , 378 November 16 : 279 – 281 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dorahy , M. J. 2001 . Dissociative identity disorder and memory dysfunction: The current state of experimental research and its future directions . Clinical Psychology Review , 21 : 771 – 795 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dorahy , M. J. 2006 . The dissociative processing style: A cognitive organization activated by perceived or actual threat in clinical dissociators . Journal of Trauma & Dissociation , 7 ( 4 ) : 29 – 53 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ehlers , A. and Clark , D. M. 2000 . A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder . Behaviour Research and Therapy , 38 : 319 – 345 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elzinga , B. M. , Ardon , A. M. , Heijnis , M. K. , de Ruiter , M. B. , van Dyck , R. and Veltman , D. J. 2007 . Neural correlates of enhanced working-memory performance in dissociative disorder: A functional MRI study . Psychological Medicine , 37 : 235 – 245 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Falsetti , S. A. , Resnick , H. S. , Resick , P. A. and Kilpatrick , D. G. 1993 . The Modified PTSD Symptom Scale: A brief self-report measure of posttraumatic stress disorder . Behavioral Therapist , 16 : 161 – 162 .
   Google Scholar
• Farvolden , P. and Woody , E. Z. 2004 . Hypnosis, memory, and frontal executive functioning . International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis , 52 : 3 – 26 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foa , E. B. and Hearst-Ikeda , D. 1996 . “ Emotional dissociation in response to trauma: An information-processing approach ” . In Handbook of dissociation: Theoretical, empirical, and clinical perspectives , Edited by: Ray , W. J. and Michelson , L. K. 207 – 224 . New York : Plenum Press .
   Google Scholar
• Forrest , K. A. 2001 . Toward an etiology of dissociative identity disorder: A neurodevelopmental approach . Consciousness and Cognition , 10 : 259 – 293 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freyberger , H. J. , Spitzer , C. and Stieglitz , R.-D. 1999 . Fragebogen dissoziativer Symptome. Testmanual. Göttingen, Germany: Hogrefe. German adaptation of the Dissociate Experience Scale (DES). Carlson, E. B., & Putnam, F. W. (1993). An update on the Dissociative Experiences Scale . Dissociation , 6 : 16 – 27 .
   Google Scholar
• Freyd , J. J. , Martorella , S. R. , Alvarado , J. S. , Hayes , A. E. and Christman , J. C. 1998 . Cognitive environments and dissociative tendencies: Performance on the standard Stroop task for high versus low dissociators . Applied Cognitive Psychology , 12 : S91 – S103 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fuster , J. M. 2003 . Cortex and mind: Unifying cognition , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Giesbrecht , T. , Merckelbach , H. , Geraerts , E. and Smeets , E. 2004 . Dissociation in undergraduate students: Disruptions in executive functioning . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 192 : 567 – 569 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gold , J. M. , Carpenter , C. , Randolph , C. , Goldberg , T. E. and Weinberger , D. R. 1997 . Auditory working memory and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in schizophrenia . Archives of General Psychiatry , 54 : 159 – 165 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guralnik , O. , Schmeidler , J. and Simeon , D. 2000 . Feeling unreal: Cognitive processes in depersonalization . American Journal of Psychiatry , 157 : 103 – 109 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrison , B. J. , Shaw , M. , Yucel , M. , Purcell , R. , Brewer , W. J. Strother , S. C. 2005 . Functional connectivity during Stroop task performance . Neuroimage , 24 : 181 – 191 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Helmstaedter , C. , Lendt , M. and Lux , S. 2001 . Verbaler Lern- und Merkfähigkeitstest. (Auditory verbal learning and memory test.) , Weinheim, , Germany : Beltz .
   Google Scholar
• Heubrock , D. 1995 . Error analysis in neuropsychological assessment of verbal memory and learning . European Journal of Psychological Assessment , 11 : 21 – 28 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hilgard , E. R. 1994 . “ Neodissociation theory ” . In Dissociation: Clinical and theoretical perspectives , Edited by: Lynn , S. J. and Rhue , J. W. 52 – 79 . New York : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Hodgins , G. A. , Creamer , M. and Bell , R. 2001 . Risk factors for posttrauma reactions in police officers: A longitudinal study . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 189 : 541 – 547 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kihlstrom , J. F. , Glisky , M. L. and Angiulo , M. J. 1994 . Dissociative tendencies and dissociative disorders . Journal Abnormal Psychology , 103 : 117 – 124 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kubler , A. , Dixon , V. and Garavan , H. 2006 . Automaticity and reestablishment of executive control—An fMRI study . Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 18 : 1331 – 1342 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Law , J. R. , Flanery , M. A. , Wirth , S. , Yanike , M. , Smith , A. C. Frank , L. M. 2005 . Functional magnetic resonance imaging activity during the gradual acquisition and expression of paired-associate memory . Journal of Neuroscience , 25 : 5720 – 5729 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LeDoux , J. E. 1998 . Fear and the brain: Where have we been, and where are we going? . Biological Psychiatry , 44 : 1229 – 1238 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LeDoux , J. E. 1996 . The emotional brain: The mysterious underpinnings of emotional life , New York : Simon and Schuster .
   Google Scholar
• Lezak , M. D. , Howieson , D. B. and Loring , D. W. 2004 . Neuropsychological assessment , Oxford, , England : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Maaranen , P. , Tanskanen , A. , Haatainen , K. , Koivumaa-Honkanen , H. , Hintikka , J. and Viinamaki , H. 2004 . Somatoform dissociation and adverse childhood experiences in the general population . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 192 : 337 – 342 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McClelland , J. L. , McNaughton , B. L. and O'Reilly , R. C. 1995 . Why there are complementary learning systems in the hippocampus and neocortex: Insights from the successes and failures of connectionist models of learning and memory . Psychological Review , 102 : 419 – 457 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merckelbach , H. and Giesberg , T. 2006 . Subclinical dissociation, schizotypy, and traumatic distress . Personality and Individual Differences , 40 : 365 – 374 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyers , J. E. and Meyers , K. R. 1995 . Rey Complex Figure Test and Recognition Trial , Odessa, FL : Psychological Assessment Resources .
   Google Scholar
• Morgan , C. A. II , Hazlett , I , Wang , G. , Richardson , S. , Jr , E. G., . , Schnurr , P. and Southwick , S. M. 2001 . Symptoms of dissociation in humans experiencing acute, uncontrollable stress: A prospective investigation . American Journal of Psychiatry , 158 : 1239 – 1247 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morgan , M. A. , Romanski , L. M. and LeDoux , J. E. 1993 . Extinction of emotional learning: Contribution of medial prefrontal cortex . Neuroscience Letters , 163 : 109 – 113 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prohl , J. , Resch , F. , Parzer , P. and Brunner , R. 2001 . Relationship between dissociative symptomatology and declarative and procedural memory in adolescent psychiatric patients . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 189 : 602 – 607 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rauch , S. L. , van der Kolk , B. A. , Fisler , R. E. , Alpert , N. M. , Orr , S. P. Savage , C. R. 1996 . A symptom provocation study of posttraumatic stress disorder using positron emission tomography and script-driven imagery . Archives of General Psychiatry , 53 : 380 – 387 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rey , A. 1941 . L'examen psychologique dans les cas encéphalopathie traumatique. (Psychological examination of traumatic encephalopathy.) . Archives de Psychologie , 28 : 286 – 340 .
   Google Scholar
• Rey , A. 1964 . L'examen clinique en psychologie. (The clinical examination in psychology.) , Paris : Presses Universitaires de France .
   Google Scholar
• Roca , V. , Hart , J. , Kimbrell , T. and Freeman , T. 2006 . Cognitive function and dissociative disorder status among veteran subjects with chronic posttraumatic stress disorder: A preliminary study . Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences , 18 : 226 – 230 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ross , C. A. , Joshi , S. and Currie , R. 1990 . Dissociative experiences in the general population . American Journal of Psychiatry , 147 : 1547 – 1552 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt , K.-H. and Metzler , P. 1992 . Wortschatztest (WST). (Vocabulary test.) , Weinheim, , Germany : Beltz .
   Google Scholar
• Spanos , N. P. 1994 . Multiple identity enactments and multiple personality disorder: A sociocognitive perspective . Psychological Bulletin , 116 : 143 – 165 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spence , S. A. , Hunter , M. D. and Harpin , G. 2002 . Neuroscience and the will . Current Opinion in Psychiatry , 15 : 519 – 526 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spiegel , D. , Koopman , C. , Cardeña , E. and Classen , C. 1996 . “ Dissociative symptoms in the diagnosis of acute stress disorder ” . In Handbook of dissociation: Theoretical, empirical and clinical perspectives , Edited by: Michelson , L. K. and Ray , W. J. 367 – 380 . New York : Plenum Press .
   Google Scholar
• Spreen , O. and Strauss , E. 1998 . A compendium of neuropsychological tests , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Staresina , B. P. and Davachi , L. 2006 . Differential encoding mechanisms for subsequent associative recognition and free recall . Journal of Neuroscience , 26 : 9162 – 9172 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steinberg , M. 1993 . Interviewer's guide to the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM–IV Dissociative Disorders (SCID-D) , Washington, DC : American Psychiatric Press .
   Google Scholar
• Steinberg , M. , Rounsaville , B. and Cicchetti , D. 1991 . Detection of dissociative disorders in psychiatric patients by a screening instrument and a structured diagnostic interview . American Journal of Psychiatry , 148 : 1050 – 1054 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Svoboda , E. , McKinnon , M. C. and Levine , B. 2006 . The functional neuroanatomy of autobiographical memory: A meta-analysis . Neuropsychologia , 44 : 2189 – 2208 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vasterling , J. J. , Brailey , K. , Constans , J. I. and Sutker , P. B. 1998 . Attention and memory dysfunction in posttraumatic stress disorder . Neuropsychology , 12 : 125 – 133 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Veltman , D. J. , de Ruiter , M. B. , Rombouts , S. A. , Lazeron , R. H. , Barkhof , F. van Dyck , R. 2005 . Neurophysiological correlates of increased verbal working memory in high-dissociative participants: A functional MRI study . Psychological Medicine , 35 : 175 – 185 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wechsler , D. 1997a . Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale–III , San Antonio, TX : Psychological Corporation .
   Google Scholar
• Wechsler , D. 1997b . Wechsler Memory Scale. Third edition manual , San Antonio, TX : Psychological Corporation .
   Google Scholar
• Wessel , I. , Meeren , M. , Peeters , F. , Arntz , A. and Merckelbach , H. 2001 . Correlates of autobiographical memory specificity: The role of depression, anxiety and childhood trauma . Behaviour Research and Therapy , 39 : 409 – 421 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wittchen , H.-U. , Wunderlich , U. , Gruschwitz , S. and Zaudig , M. 1996 . Strukturiertes Klinisches Interview für DSM–IV (SKID). (SCID—Structured clinical interview for DSM–1V.) , Göttingen, , Germany : Beltz-Test .
   Google Scholar
• Woody , E. Z. and Bowers , K. S. 1994 . “ A frontal assault on dissociated control ” . In Dissociation: Clinical and theoretical perspectives , Edited by: Lynn , S. J. and Rhue , J. W. 52 – 79 . New York : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Zimmermann , P. and Fimm , B. 1993 . Testbatterie zur Aufmerksamkeitsprüfung (TAP). (Test battery for the assessment of attention) , Munich, , Germany : Psytest .
   Google Scholar
• Zola-Morgan , S. and Squire , L. R. 1993 . Neuroanatomy of memory . Annual Review of Neuroscience , 16 : 547 – 563 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar