Predictors of the Development of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Among Police Officers

REFERENCES

• Alexander , D. A. and Wells , A. 1991 . Reactions of police officers to body-handling after a major disaster: A before-and-after comparison . British Journal of Psychiatry , 159 : 547 – 555 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association . 1994 . Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders , 4th , Washington, DC : Author .
   Google Scholar
• Bartone , P. T. . A short hardiness scale . Paper presented at the 7th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Society . New York, NY. July
   Google Scholar
• Bartone , P. T. 1999 . Hardiness protects against war-related stress in Army Reserve forces . Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research , 51 : 72 – 82 .
   Google Scholar
• Bernat , J.-A. , Ronfeldt , H.-M. , Calhoun , K.-S. and Arias , I. 1998 . Prevalence of traumatic events and peritraumatic predictors of posttraumatic stress symptoms in a nonclinical sample of college students . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 11 : 645 – 664 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Birmes , P. , Brunet , A. , Benoit , M. , Defer , S. , Hatton , L. Sztulman , H. 2005 . Validation of the Peritraumatic Dissociative Experiences Questionnaire self-report version in two samples of French-speaking individuals exposed to trauma . European Psychiatry , 20 ( 2 ) : 145 – 151 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blake , D. D. , Weathers , F. W. , Nagy , L. M. , Kaloupek , D. G. , Gusman , F. D. Charney , D. S. 1995 . The development of a clinician-administered PTSD scale . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 8 : 75 – 90 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breh , D. C. and Seidler , G. H. 2007 . Is peritraumatic dissociation a risk factor for PTSD? . Journal of Trauma & Dissociation , 8 ( 1 ) : 53 – 69 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brewin , C. R. , Andrews , B. and Valentine , J. D. 2000 . Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 68 ( 5 ) : 748 – 766 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brillon , P. , Marchand , A. and Prince , I. . How rape victims perceive the world, others, and themselves: Comparisons with symptomatology . Poster session presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Advancement of Behavior Therapy . New Orleans, LA. November
   Google Scholar
• Bryant , R. A. 2007 . Does dissociation further our understanding of PTSD? . Journal of Anxiety Disorders , 21 : 183 – 191 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carlier , I. V. E. , Lamberts , R. D. and Gersons , B. P. R. 1997 . Risk factors for posttraumatic stress symptomatology in police officers: A prospective analysis . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 185 ( 8 ) : 498 – 506 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cutrona , C. E. and Russell , D. 1987 . The provisions of social support and adaptation to stress . Advance in Personal Relationships , 1 : 37 – 67 .
   Google Scholar
• Dufour-Pineault , M. . Hardiesse cognitive: Traduction française et validation préliminaire d'un instrument de mesure, le 15-item Dispositional Resilience (Hardiness) Scale . Unpublished master's thesis, Université du Québec à Montréal . Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Personality hardiness: French translation and preliminary validation of the 15-item Dispositional Resilience (Hardiness) Scale.
   Google Scholar
• Dyregrov , A. , Kristoffersen , J. I. and Gjestad , R. 1996 . Voluntary and professional disaster-workers: Similarities and differences in reactions . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 9 : 541 – 555 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elklit , A. , Shevlin , M. , Solomon , Z. and Dekel , R. 2007 . Factor structure and concurrent validity of the World Assumptions Scale . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 20 : 291 – 301 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Endler , N. S. and Parker , J. D. A. 1990 . Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations (CISS): Manual , Toronto, Ontario, , Canada : Multi-Health Systems .
   Google Scholar
• Fikretoglu , D. , Brunet , A. , Best , S. R. , Metzler , T. J. , Delucchi , K. Weiss , D. S. 2007 . Peritraumatic fear, helplessness and horror and peritraumatic dissociation: Do physical and cognitive symptoms of panic mediate the relationship between the two? . Behaviour Research and Therapy , 45 : 39 – 47 .
   Google Scholar
• First , M. B. , Spitzer , R. L. , Gibbon , M. and Williams , J. B. W. 1996 . Structured Clinical Interview for DSM–IV Axis I Disorders, Clinician Version (SCID-CV) , Washington, DC : American Psychiatric Press .
   Google Scholar
• Friedman , M. and Higson-Smith , C. 2003 . “ Building psychological resilience: Learning from the South African police service ” . In Promoting capabilities to manage posttraumatic stress: Perspectives on resilience , Edited by: Paton , D. , Violanti , J. M. and Smith , L. M. 103 – 118 . Springfield, IL : Charles C Thomas .
   Google Scholar
• Gray , M. J. , Litz , B. T. , Hsu , J. L. and Lombardo , T. W. 2004 . Psychometric properties of the Life Events Checklist . Assessment , 11 ( 4 ) : 330 – 341 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guay , S. and Miller , J.-M. 2000 . Traductions du Perceived Supportive Spouse Behaviors et du Perceived Negative Spouse Behaviors (Translation of the Perceived Supportive Spous Behaviors and of the Perceived Negative Spouse Behaviors.) Unpublished manuscript
   Google Scholar
• Haisch , D. C. and Meyers , L. S. 2004 . MMPI-2 assessed post-traumatic stress disorder related to job stress, coping, and personality in police agencies . Stress and Health , 20 ( 4 ) : 223 – 229 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hodgins , G. A. , Creamer , M. C. and Bell , R. C. 2001 . Risk factors for posttrauma reactions in police officers: A longitudinal study . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 189 ( 8 ) : 541 – 547 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janoff-Bulman , R. 1992 . Shattered assumptions: Towards a new psychology of trauma , New York : Free Press .
   Google Scholar
• Keane , T. M. and Barlow , D. H. 2002 . “ Posttraumatic stress disorder ” . In Anxiety and its disorders: The nature and treatment of anxiety and panic , Edited by: Barlow , D. H. 418 – 453 . New York : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Kilpatrick , D. G. , Resnick , H. S. and Freedy , J. R. 1991 . The Potential Stressful Events Interview Unpublished instrument, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston
   Google Scholar
• King , D. W. , Vogt , D. S. and King , L. A. 2004 . “ Risk and resilience factors in the etiology of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder ” . In Early intervention for trauma and traumatic loss , Edited by: Litz , B. T. 34 – 64 . New York : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Kubany , E. , Haynes , S. , Leisen , M. , Owens , J. , Kaplan , A. Watson , S. 2000 . Development and preliminary validation of a brief broad-spectrum measure of trauma exposure: The Traumatic Life Events Questionnaire . Psychological Assessment , 12 : 210 – 224 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liberman , A. M. , Best , S. R. , Metzler , T. J. , Fagan , J. A. , Weiss , D. S. and Marmar , C. R. 2002 . Routine occupational stress and psychological distress in police . Policing , 25 ( 2 ) : 421 – 439 .
   Google Scholar
• Manne , S. L. , Taylor , K. L. , Dougherty , J. and Kemeny , N. 1997 . Supportive and negative responses in the partner relationship: Their association with psychological adjustment among individuals with cancer . Journal of Behavioral Medicine , 20 : 101 – 125 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marmar , C. R. , McCaslin , S. E. , Metzler , T. J. , Best , S. , Weiss , D. S. Fagan , J. 2006 . Predictors of posttraumatic stress in police and other first responders . Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences , 1071 : 1 – 18 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marmar , C. R. , Weiss , D. S. and Metzler , T. J. 1997 . “ The Peritraumatic Dissociative Experiences Questionnaire ” . In Assessing psychological trauma and PTSD , Edited by: Wilson , J. P. and Keane , T. M. 412 – 428 . New York : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Martin , A. and Marchand , A. 2003 . Prediction of posttraumatic stress disorder: Peritraumatic dissociation, negative emotions and physical anxiety among French-speaking university students . Journal of Trauma & Dissociation , 4 ( 2 ) : 49 – 63 .
   Google Scholar
• Martin , M. , Germain , V. and Marchand , A. 2006 . “ Facteurs de risque et de protection dans la modulation de l'état de stress post-traumatique ” . In Les troubles liés aux événements traumatiques: Dépistage, évaluation et traitements (Mental disorders associated with traumatic events: Screening, assessment and interventions.) , Edited by: Guay , S. and Marchand , A. 51 – 86 . Montreal, Quebec, , Canada : Les Presses de l'Université de Montréal . Risk and protective factors in the development of post-traumatic stress disorder
   Google Scholar
• McCaslin , S. E. , Metzler , T. J. , Best , S. R. , Liberman , A. , Weiss , D. S. Fagan , J. 2006 . Alexithymia and PTSD symptoms in urban police officers: Cross-sectional and prospective findings . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 19 : 361 – 373 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McNally , V. J. and Solomon , R. M. 1999 . The FBI's Critical Incident Stress Management Program . FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin , 68 : 20 – 26 .
   Google Scholar
• Moleman , N. , van der Hart , O. and van der Kolk , B. A. 1992 . The partus stress reaction: A neglected etiological factor in postpartum psychiatric disorders . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 180 ( 4 ) : 271 – 272 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ozer , E. J. , Best , S. R. , Lipsey , T. L. and Weiss , D. S. 2003 . Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: A meta-analysis . Psychological Bulletin , 129 ( 1 ) : 52 – 73 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perrin , M. A. , DiGrande , L. , Wheeler , K. , Thorpe , L. , Farfel , M. and Brackbill , R. 2007 . Differences in PTSD prevalence and associated risk factors among World Trade Center disaster rescue and recovery workers . American Journal of Psychiatry , 164 : 1385 – 1394 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pole , N. , Best , S. R. , Metzler , T. and Marmar , C. R. 2005 . Why are Hispanics at greater risk for PTSD? . Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology , 11 ( 2 ) : 144 – 161 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rogers , R. 2001 . “ Structured Clinical Interview for DSM–IV Disorders (SCID) and other Axis I interviews ” . In Handbook of diagnostic and structured interviewing , Edited by: Rogers , R. 103 – 148 . New York : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Rolland , J. P. 1994 . “ Caractéristiques métrologiques d'un inventaire de réactions aux situations stressantes: le C.I.S.S. de Endler et Parker (Metrological characteristics of the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations developed by Endler and Parker ” . In Les techniques psychologiques d'évaluation des personnes (Psychological methods of assessment , Edited by: Huteau , M. 924 – 926 . Paris : EAP .
   Google Scholar
• Schnurr , P. P. , Lunney , C. A. and Sengupta , A. 2004 . Risk factors for the development versus maintenance of posttraumatic stress disorder . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 17 : 85 – 95 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwarzer , R. and Schwarzer , C. 1996 . “ A critical survey of coping instruments ” . In Handbook of coping: Theory, research, applications , Edited by: Zeidner , M. and Endler , N. S. 107 – 132 . Oxford, , England : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Sharkansky , E. J. , King , D. W. , King , L. A. , Wolfe , J. , Erickson , D. J. and Stokes , L. R. 2000 . Coping with Gulf War combat stress: Mediating and moderating effects . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 109 ( 2 ) : 188 – 197 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stephens, C. (1997). Debriefing, social support and PTSD in the New Zealand police: Testing a multidimensional model of organisational traumatic stress [Electronic version]. Australasian Journal of Disaster & Trauma Studies, 1 http://massey.ac.nz/trauma (Accessed: 15 August 2005 ).
   Google Scholar
• St-Jean-Trudel , E. , Guay , S. and Bonaventure , M. . Social support and anxiety disorders: A pilot study . Poster session presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Advancement of Behavior Therapy . Boston, MS. November
   Google Scholar
• van der Velden , P. G. and Wittmann , L. 2008 . The independent predictive value of peritraumatic dissociation for PTSD symptomatology after Type I trauma: A systematic review of prospective studies . Clinical Psychology Review , 28 ( 6 ) : 1009 – 1020 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson , F. C. , Poole , A. D. and Trew , K. 1997 . Psychological distress in police officers following critical incidents . Irish Journal of Psychology , 18 ( 3 ) : 321 – 340 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar