Association of Childhood Complex Trauma and Dissociation With Complex Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms in Adulthood

REFERENCES

• Althoff, R. R., Verhulst, F. C., Rettew, D. C., Hudziak, J. J., & van der Ende, J. (2010). Adult outcomes of childhood dysregulation: A 14-year follow-up study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 49, 1105–1116.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173–1182.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernstein, E. M., & Putnam, F. W. (1986). Development, reliability, and validity of a dissociation scale. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 174, 727–735.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bollen, K. A., & Stine, R. (1990). Direct and indirect effects: Classical and bootstrap estimates of variability. Sociological Methodology, 20, 115–140.
   Google Scholar
• Bowman (1998). http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/0193953X” \o “Go to Psychiatric Clinics of North America on ScienceDirect. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 21, 649–657.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brand, B. L., Lanius, R., Vermetten, E., Loewenstein, R. J., & Spiegel, D. (2012). Where are we going? An update on assessment, treatment, and neurobiological research in dissociative disorders as we move toward the DSM–5. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 13(1), 9–31. doi:10.1080/15299732.2011.620687
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Busuttil, W. (2009). Complex post-traumatic stress disorder: A useful diagnostic framework? Psychiatry, 8(8), 310–314.
   Google Scholar
• Cloitre, M., Garvert, D. W., Brewin, C. R., Bryant, R. A., & Maercker, A. (2013). Evidence for proposed ICD-11 PTSD and complex PTSD: A latent profile analysis. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 4. doi:10.3402/ejpt.v4i0.20706. Retrieved from http://www.ejpt.net/index.php/ejpt/article/view/20706
   Google Scholar
• Cloitre, M., Petkova, E., Wang, J., & Lu Lassell, F. (2012). An examination of the influence of a sequential treatment on the course and impact of dissociation among women with PTSD related to childhood abuse. Depression and Anxiety, 29, 709–717. doi:10.1002/da.21920
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Cook, A., Spinazzola, J., Ford, J., Lanktree, C., Blaustein, M., Cloitre, M., et al. (2005). Complex trauma in children and adolescents. Psychiatric Annals, 35, 390–398.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Copeland, W., Shanahan, L., Costello, E. J., & Angold, A. (2009). Configurations of common childhood psychosocial risk factors. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 451–459. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.02005.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Courtois, C. (2010). Healing the incest wound (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Norton.
   Google Scholar
• Courtois, C., & Ford, J. D. (Eds.). (2009). Treating complex traumatic stress disorders: An evidence-based guide. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Courtois, C. A., & Ford, J. D. (2013). Treating complex trauma: A sequenced relationship-based approach. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• D’Andrea, W., Ford, J. D., Stolbach, B., Spinazzola, J., & van der Kolk, B. A. (2012). Understanding interpersonal trauma in children: Why we need a developmentally appropriate trauma diagnosis. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 82(2), 187–200.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DePrince, A. P., & Freyd, J. J. (2004). Forgetting trauma stimuli. Psychological Science, 15, 488–492.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dorahy, M. J., Corry, M., Shannon, M., Webb, K., McDermott, B., Ryan, M., & Dyer, K. F. (2013). Complex trauma and intimate relationships: The impact of shame, guilt and dissociation. Journal of Affective Disorders, 147(1–3), 72–79. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2012.10.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ensink, B. J., & Van Otterloo, D. (1989). A validation study of the DES in The Netherlands. Dissociation, 2, 221–223.
   Google Scholar
• Foa, E. B., Keane, T. M., Friedman, M. J., & Cohen, J. A. (Eds.). (2009). Effective treatments for PTSD (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ford, J. D. (2008). Complex posttraumatic stress disorder. In G. Reyes, J. D. Elhai, & J. D. Ford (Eds.), Encyclopedia of psychological trauma (pp. 152–154). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Ford, J. D. (2009). Dissociation in complex posttraumatic stress disorder or disorders of extreme stress not otherwise specified (DESNOS). In P. F. Dell & J. A. O’Neil (Eds.), Dissociation and the dissociative disorders: DSM–V and beyond (pp. 471–483). New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Ford, J. D., & Kidd, P. (1998). Early childhood trauma and disorders of extreme stress as predictors of treatment outcome with chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 11, 743–761.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freyd, J. J., DePrince, A. P., & Gleaves, D. H. (2007). The state of betrayal trauma theory. Memory, 15, 295–311.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frischholz, E. J., Braun, B. G., Sachs, G. R., Hopkins, L., Schaeffer, D. M., Lewis, J., … Schwartz, D. R. (1990). The Dissociative Experiences Scale: Further replication and validation. Dissociation, 3, 151–153.
   Google Scholar
• Herman, J. L. (1992). Complex PTSD: A syndrome in survivors of prolonged and repeated trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 5, 377–391.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hulette, A. C., Freyd, J. J., & Fisher, P. A. (2011). Dissociation in middle childhood among foster children with early maltreatment experiences. Child Abuse & Neglect, 35(2), 123–126. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2010.10.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kessler, R. C., McLaughlin, K. A., Green, J. G., Gruber, M. J., Sampson, N. A., Zaslavsky, A. M., … Williams, D. R. (2011). Childhood adversities and adult psychopathology in the WHO World Mental Health Surveys. British Journal of Psychiatry, 197, 378–385.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kihlstrom, J. F. (1992). Hypnosis: A sesquicentennial essay. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 40(4), 301–314. doi:10.1080/00207149208409663
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kilic, O., Sar, V., Taycan, O., Aksoy-Poyraz, C., Erol, T. C., Tecer, O., … Ozmen, M. (2014). Dissociative depression among women with fibromyalgia or rheumatoid arthritis. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 15(3), 285–302. doi:10.1080/15299732.2013.844218
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knefel, M., & Lueger-Schuster, B. (2013). An evaluation of ICD-11 PTSD and complex PTSD criteria in a sample of adult survivors of childhood institutional abuse. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 4. doi:10.3402/ejpt.v4i0.22608. Retrieved from http://www.ejpt.net/index.php/ejpt/article/view/22608#
   Google Scholar
• Kucukgoncu, S., Yildirim Ornek, F., Cabalar, M., Bestepe, E., & Yayla, V. (2014). Childhood trauma and dissociation in tertiary care patients with migraine and tension type headache: A controlled study. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 77(1), 40–44. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2014.04.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lanius, R. A., Brand, B., Vermetten, E., Frewen, P. A., & Spiegel, D. (2012). The dissociative subtype of posttraumatic stress disorder: Rationale, clinical and neurobiological evidence, and implications. Depression and Anxiety, 29, 701–708. doi:10.1002/da.21889
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, S., Guo, W. J., Tsang, A., He, Y. L., Huang, Y. Q., Zhang, M. Y., … Kessler, R. C. (2011). The prevalence of family childhood adversities and their association with first onset of DSM–IV disorders in metropolitan China. Psychological Medicine, 41(1), 85–96.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lyons-Ruth, K. (2008). Contributions of the mother-infant relationship to dissociative, borderline, and conduct symptoms in young adulthood. Infant Mental Health Journal, 29(3), 203–218.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lyons-Ruth, K., Dutra, L., Schuder, M., & Bianchi, I. (2006). From infant attachment disorganization to adult dissociation: Relational adaptations or traumatic experiences? Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 29, 63–86.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacKinnon, D. P. (2008). Introduction to statistical mediation analysis. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., Hoffman, J. M., West, S. G., & Sheets, V. (2002). A comparison of methods to test mediation and other intervening variable effects. Psychological Methods, 7, 83–104.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maercker, A., Brewin, C. R., Bryant, R. A., Cloitre, M., Reed, G. M., Van Ommeren, M.,… Saxena S. (2013). Proposals for mental disorders specifically associated with stress in the ICD-11. Lancet, 381(9878), 1683–1685. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)62191-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLaughlin, K. A., Green, J. G., Gruber, M. J., Sampson, N. A., Zaslavsky, A. M., & Kessler, R. C. (2010). Childhood adversities and adult psychopathology in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R) III: Associations with functional impairment related to DSM–IV disorders. Psychological Medicine, 40, 847–859.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLean, L. M., Toner, B., Jackson, J., Desrocher, M., & Stuckless, N. (2006). The relationship between childhood sexual abuse, complex traumatic stress disorder and alexithymia in two outpatient samples: Examination of women treated in community and institutional clinics. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 15(3), 1–17.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2007). Mplus user’s guide (4th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Authors.
   Google Scholar
• Nijenhuis, E. R. S. (2004). Somatoform dissociation: Phenomena, measurement and theoretical issues. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Co.
   Google Scholar
• Nijenhuis, E. R. S., Spinhoven, P., Van Dyck, R., Van der Hart, O., & Vanderlinden, J. (1996). The development and psychometric characteristics of the Somatoform Dissociation Questionnaire (SDQ-20). Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 184, 688–694.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nijenhuis, E. R. S., Spinhoven, P., Vanderlinden, J., Van Dyck, R., & Van der Hart, O. (1998). Somatoform dissociative symptoms as related to animal defensive reactions to predatory imminence and injury. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 63–73.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nijenhuis, E. R. S., Van der Hart, O., & Kruger, K. (2002). The psychometric characteristics of the Traumatic Experiences Checklist (TEC): First findings among psychiatric outpatients. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 9, 200–210.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nijenhuis, E. R. S., Van der Hart, O., Kruger, K., & Steele, K. (2004). Somatoform dissociation, reported abuse and animal defence-like reactions. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 38, 678–686.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pelcovitz, D., Van der Kolk, B., Roth, S., Mandel, F., & Resick, P. (1997). Development of a criteria set and a Structured Interview for Disorders of Extreme Stress (SIDES). Journal of Traumatic Stress, 10, 3–16.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Putnam, F. W. (2009). Taking the measure of dissociation. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 10(3),233–236. doi:10.1080/15299730902956564
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roth, S., Newman, E., Pelcovitz, D., Van der Kolk, B., & Mandel, F. S. (1997). Complex PTSD in victims exposed to sexual and physical abuse: Results from the DSM–IV field trial for posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 10, 539–555.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schafer, I., Langeland, W., Hissbach, J., Luedecke, C., Ohlmeier, M. D., Chodzinski, C.,… Group, T. R.-S. (2010). Childhood trauma and dissociation in patients with alcohol dependence, drug dependence, or both–A multi-center study. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 109(1–3), 84–89. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2009.12.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scoboria, A., Ford, J. D., Lin, H., & Frisman, L. (2008). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses of the Structured Interview for Disorders of Extreme Stress. Assessment, 15, 404–425.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott, K. M., Von Korff, M., Angermeyer, M. C., Benjet, C., Bruffaerts, R., de Girolamo, G.,… Kessler, R. C. (2011). Association of childhood adversities and early-onset mental disorders with adult-onset chronic physical conditions. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68(8), 838–844. doi: 68/8/838 [pii]10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.77
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shrout, P. E., & Bolger, N. (2002). Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: New procedures and recommendations. Psychological Methods, 7, 422–445.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stein, D. J., Koenen, K. C., Friedman, M. J., Hill, E., McLaughlin, K. A., Petukhova, M., … Kessler, R. C. (2013). Dissociation in posttraumatic stress disorder: Evidence from the World Mental Health Surveys. Biological Psychiatry, 73(4), 302–312. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.08.022
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomaes, K., Dorrepaal, E., Draijer, N., de Ruiter, M. B., Elzinga, B. M., Sjoerds, Z., … Veltman, D. J. (2013). Increased anterior cingulate cortex and hippocampus activation in complex PTSD during encoding of negative words. Social and Cognitive Affective Neuroscience, 8(2), 190–200. doi:10.1093/scan/nsr084
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van der Hart, O., Nijenhuis, E., & Steele, K. (2005). Dissociation: An insufficiently recognized major feature of complex posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18, 413–423.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van der Hart, O., Nijenhuis, E., & Steele, K. (2006). The haunted self: Structural dissociation and the treatment of chronic traumatization. New York, NY: Norton.
   Google Scholar
• Van der Hart, O., Van Dijke, A., Van Son, M. J. M., & Steele, K. (2000). Somatoform dissociation in traumatized World War I combat soldiers: A neglected clinical heritage. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 1(4), 33–66.
   Google Scholar
• Van der Kolk, B. A. (1996). The Complexity of adaptation to trauma: Self-regulation, stimulus discrimination, and characterological development. In Van der Kolk, B. A., McFarlane, A. C. & Weisaeth, L. (Eds), Traumatic stress: The effects of overwhelming experience on mind, body, and society (pp. 182–213). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Van der Kolk, B. A., Pelcovitz, M. D., Roth, S., Mandel, F. S., McFarlane, A., & Herman, J. L. (1996). Dissociation, somatization, and affect dysregulation: The complexity of adaptation to trauma. American Journal of Psychiatry, 153, 83–93.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Kolk, B. A., Roth, S., Pelcovitz, D., Sunday, S., & Spinazzola, J. (2005). Disorders of extreme stress: The empirical foundation of a complex adaptation to trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18(5), 389–399.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Dijke, A. (2008). The clinical assessment and treatment of trauma-related self and affect dysregulation. In A. Vingerhoets, I. Nyklicek, & J. Denollet (Eds.), Emotion regulation: Conceptual and clinical issues (pp. 150–169). New York, NY: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Van Dijke, A., Ford, J. D., Frank, L., Van Son, M., & Van der Hart, O. (2013). Association of childhood-trauma-by-primary caregiver and affect dysregulation with borderline personality disorder symptoms in adulthood. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice & Policy, 5, 217–224.
   Google Scholar
• Van Dijke, A., Ford, J. D., Van der Hart, O., Van Son, M. J. M., Van der Heijden, P. G. M., & Bühring, M. (2010). Affect dysregulation in borderline personality disorder and somatoform disorder: Differentiating under- and over-regulation. Journal of Personality Disorders, 24, 296–311.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Dijke, A., Ford, J. D., Van der Hart, O., Van Son, M., van der Heijden, P., & Bühring, M. (2012). Complex posttraumatic stress disorder in patients with borderline personality disorder and somatoform disorders Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice & Policy, 4, 162–168.
   Google Scholar
• Van Dijke, A., & Van der Hart, O. (2002). The Dutch self report version of the Structured Interview for Disorders of Extreme Stress Not Otherwise Specified (SIDES-r-nl). Unpublished manual, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
   Google Scholar
• Van Dijke, A., Van der Hart, O., Ford, J. D., Van Son, M., Van der Heijden, P., & Bühring, M. (2010). Affect dysregulation and dissociation in borderline personality disorder and somatoform disorder: Differentiating inhibitory and excitatory experiencing states. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 11, 424–443.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verdurmen, J., ten Have, M., de Graaf, R., van Dorsselaer, S., van‘t Land, H., & Vollebergh, W. (2007). Psychological aftermath of child abuse in adulthood: Results from the “Netherlands Mental Health Survey and Incidence Study” (NEMESIS) [Psychische gevolgen van kindermishandeling op volwassen leeftijd]. Utrecht, The Netherlands: Nationale Monitor Geestelijke Gezondheid.
   Google Scholar
• Wingenfeld, K., Riedesel, K., Petrovic, Z., Philippsen, C., Meyer, B., Rose, M.,… Spitzer, C. (2011). Impact of childhood trauma, alexithymia, dissociation, and emotion suppression on emotional Stroop task. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 70(1), 53–58. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2010.06.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zlotnick, C., Zakriski, A. L., Shea, M. T., Costello, E., Begin, A., Pearlstein, T., & Simpson, E. (1996). The long-term sequelae of sexual abuse: Support for a complex posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9, 195–205.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar