Investigating Differences in Sleep Disturbance, Dissociation, and Anxiety Due to the Severity and Timing of Betrayal Trauma Experienced

References

• Hub Wales, A. C. E. (2022). Trauma-informed Wales: A societal approach to understanding, preventing and supporting the impacts of trauma and adversity. Public Health Wales NHS Trust. https://traumaframeworkcymru.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/Trauma-Informed-Wales-Framework.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Alfheim, H. B., Hofsø, K., Småstuen, M. C., Tøien, K., Rosseland, L. A., & Rustøen, T. (2019). Post-traumatic stress symptoms in family caregivers of intensive care unit patients: A longitudinal study. Intensive & Critical Care Nursing, 50, 5–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iccn.2018.05.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amiri, S., & Behnezhad, S. (2019). Obesity and anxiety symptoms: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuropsychiatrie: Klinik, Diagnostik, Therapie Und Rehabilitation, 33(2), 72–89. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40211-019-0302-9
   Google Scholar
• Arni, P., Dragone, D., Goette, L., & Ziebarth, N. R. (2021). Biased health perceptions and risky health behaviors – Theory and evidence. Journal of Health Economics, 76, 102425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2021.102425
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Babcock, R. L., & DePrince, A. P. (2013). Factors contributing to ongoing intimate partner abuse: Childhood betrayal trauma and dependence on one’s perpetrator. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 28(7), 1385–1402. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260512468248
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baird, T., McLeay, S., Harvey, W., Theal, R., Law, D., & O’Sullivan, R. (2018). Sleep disturbances in Australian Vietnam veterans with and without posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine, 14(5), 745–752. https://doi.org/10.5664/jcsm.7096
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brand, B. L., Dalenberg, C. J., Frewen, P. A., Loewenstein, R. J., Schielke, H. J., Brams, J. S., & Spiegel, D. (2018). Trauma-related dissociation is no fantasy: Addressing the errors of omission and commission in Merckelbach and Patihis (2018). Psychological Injury and Law, 11(4), 377–393. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-018-9336-8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewerton, T. D. (2019). An overview of trauma-informed care and practice for eating disorders. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 28(4), 445–462. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2018.1532940
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Briere, J., & Runtz, M. (1989). The Trauma Symptom Checklist (TSC-33): Early data on a new scale. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 4(2), 151–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/088626089004002002
   Google Scholar
• Brooks, M., Graham-Kevan, N., Robinson, S., & Lowe, M. (2019). Trauma characteristics and posttraumatic growth: The mediating role of avoidance coping, intrusive thoughts, and social support. Psychological Trauma, 11(2), 232–238. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000372
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carter, R. T., Kirkinis, K., & Johnson, V. E. (2020). Relationships between trauma symptoms and race-based traumatic stress. Traumatology, 26(1), 11–18. https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000217
   Google Scholar
• Cerutti, R., Spensieri, V., Amendola, S., Presaghi, F., Fontana, A., Faedda, N., & Guidetti, V. (2021). Sleep disturbances partially mediate the association between problematic internet use and somatic symptomatology in adolescence. Current Psychology, 40(9), 4581–4589. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-019-00414-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christian, C., & Levinson, C. A. (2022). An integrated review of fear and avoidance learning in anxiety disorders and application to eating disorders. New Ideas in Psychology, 67, 100964. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.newideapsych.2022.100964
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cromer, L. D., & Freyd, J. J. (2007). What influences believing child sexual abuse disclosures? The roles of depicted memory persistence, participant gender, trauma history, and sexism. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31(1), 13–22. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00327.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dalenberg, C. J., Brand, B. L., Gleaves, D. H., Dorahy, M. J., Loewenstein, R. J., Cardeña, E., Frewen, P. A., Carlson, E. B., & Spiegel, D. (2012). Evaluation of the evidence for the trauma and fantasy models of dissociation. Psychological Bulletin, 138(3), 550–588. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027447
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dawson, S., Bierce, A., Feder, G., Macleod, J., Turner, K. M., Zammit, S., & Lewis, N. V. (2021). Trauma-informed approaches to primary and community mental health care: Protocol for a mixed-methods systematic review. BMJ Open, 11(2), e042112. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-042112
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DePrince, A. P., Brown, L. S., Cheit, R. E., Freyd, J. J., Gold, S. N., Pezdek, K., & Quina, K. (2012). Motivated forgetting and misremembering: Perspectives from betrayal trauma theory. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 58, 193–242. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-1195-6_7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dorresteijn, S., Gladwin, T. E., Eekhout, I., Vermetten, E., & Geuze, E. (2019). Childhood trauma and the role of self-blame on psychological well-being after deployment in male veterans. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 10(1), 1558705. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2018.1558705
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunn, E. C., Nishimi, K., Powers, A., & Bradley, B. (2017). Is developmental timing of trauma exposure associated with depressive and post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in adulthood? Journal of Psychiatric Research, 84, 119–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2016.09.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dye, H. (2018). The impact and long-term effects of childhood trauma. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 28(3), 381–392. https://doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2018.1435328
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faber, J., & Fonseca, L. M. (2014). How sample size influences research outcomes. Dental Press Journal of Orthodontics, 19(4), 27–29. https://doi.org/10.1590/2176-9451.19.4.027-029.ebo
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Buchner, A., & Lang, A.-G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G*Power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods, 41(4), 1149–1160. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.41.4.1149
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ford, J. D., Grasso, D. J., Elhai, J. D., & Courtois, C. A. (2015). Social, cultural, and other diversity issues in the traumatic stress field. In J. D. Ford, D. J. Grasso, J. D. Elhat, & C. A. Courtois (Eds.), Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (pp. 503–546). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-801288-8.00011-X
   Google Scholar
• Freyd, J. J. (1994). Betrayal trauma: Traumatic amnesia as an adaptive response to childhood abuse. Ethics & Behavior, 4(4), 307–329. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327019eb0404_1
   Google Scholar
• Freyd, J. J. (1996). Betrayal trauma: The logic of forgetting childhood abuse. Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Freyd, J. J., DePrince, A. P., & Gleaves, D. H. (2007). The state of betrayal trauma theory: Reply to McNally – Conceptual issues, and future directions. Memory, 15(3), 295–311. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658210701256514
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freyd, J., & Birrell, P. (2013). Blind to betrayal: Why we fool ourselves we aren’t being fooled. John Wiley & Sons.
   Google Scholar
• Freyd, J. J. (1991, August 21–22). Memory repression, dissociative states, and other cognitive control processes involved in adult sequelae of childhood trauma. Invited paper given at the Second Annual Conference on A Psychodynamics – Cognitive Science Interface, Langley Porter Psychiatric Institute, University of California.
   Google Scholar
• Gagnon, K. L., DePrince, A. P., Chu, A. T., Gorman, M., & Saylor, M. M. (2016). Betrayal trauma and child symptoms: The role of emotion. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 17(2), 207–222. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299732.2015.1077915
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gamache Martin, C., Van Ryzin, M. J., & Dishion, T. J. (2016). Profiles of childhood trauma: Betrayal, frequency, and psychological distress in late adolescence. Psychological Trauma, 8(2), 206–213. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000095
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerge, A. (2020). What neuroscience and neurofeedback can teach psychotherapists in the field of complex trauma: Interoception, neuroception and the embodiment of unspeakable events in treatment of complex PTSD, dissociative disorders and childhood traumatization. European Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 4(3), 100164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejtd.2020.100164
   Google Scholar
• Giesbrecht, T., & Merckelbach, H. (2005). The causal relation between dissociation and trauma: A critical overview. Der Nervenarzt, 76(1), 20–27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00115-004-1704-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gobin, R. L., & Freyd, J. J. (2009). Betrayal and revictimization: Preliminary findings. Psychological Trauma, 1(3), 242–257. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017469
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldberg, L. R., & Freyd, J. J. (2006). Self-reports of potentially traumatic experiences in an adult community sample: Gender differences and test-retest stabilities of the items in a Brief Betrayal-Trauma Survey. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 7(3), 39–63. https://doi.org/10.1300/J229v07n03_04
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Goldsmith, R. E., Chesney, S. A., Heath, N. M., & Barlow, M. R. (2013). Emotion regulation difficulties mediate associations between betrayal trauma and symptoms of posttraumatic stress, depression, and anxiety. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26(3), 376–384. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21819
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldsmith, R. E., Freyd, J. J., & DePrince, A. P. (2012). Betrayal trauma: Associations with psychological and physical symptoms in young adults. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 27(3), 547–567. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260511421672
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gómez, J. M. (2017). Cultural betrayal trauma theory. University of Oregon.
   Google Scholar
• Gómez, J. M. (2019). What’s the harm? Internalized prejudice and cultural betrayal trauma in ethnic minorities. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 89(2), 237–247. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000367
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gómez, J. M. (2021). Gendered sexual violence: betrayal trauma, dissociation, and PTSD in diverse college students. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 30(5), 625–640. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2020.1783737
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gómez, J. M., Kaehler, L. A., & Freyd, J. J. (2014). Are hallucinations related to betrayal trauma exposure? A three-study exploration. Psychological Trauma, 6(6), 675–682. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037084
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gómez, J. M., Zounlome, N. O., & Noll, L. K. (2023). Development and initial validation of the Betrayal Blindness Questionnaires (BBQs). Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 32(3), 449–466. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2022.2112339
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hagenaars, M. A., Fisch, I., & van Minnen, A. (2011). The effect of trauma onset and frequency on PTSD-associated symptoms. Journal of Affective Disorders, 132(1–2), 192–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2011.02.017
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hankerson, S. H., Moise, N., Wilson, D., Waller, B. Y., Arnold, K. T., Duarte, C., Lugo-Candelas, C., Weissman, M. M., Wainberg, M., Yehuda, R., & Shim, R. (2022). The intergenerational impact of structural racism and cumulative trauma on depression. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 179(6), 434–440. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.21101000
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Hart, O., Nijenhuis, E. R. S., & Steele, K. (2006). The haunted self: Structural dissociation and the treatment of chronic traumatization (pp. xiv, 418). W. W. Norton & Co.
   Google Scholar
• Hopper, E. K., & Gonzalez, L. D. (2018). A comparison of psychological symptoms in survivors of sex and labor trafficking. Behavioral Medicine, 44(3), 177–188. https://doi.org/10.1080/08964289.2018.1432551
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howard Valdivia, R. L., Ahrens, C. E., & Gómez, J. M. (2023). Violence victimization in Latina/o/x young adults: The multiplicative effects of cultural and high betrayal trauma. Journal of Family Trauma, Child Custody & Child Development, 20(2), 216–238. https://doi.org/10.1080/26904586.2022.2066596
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hulette, A. C., Kaehler, L. A., & Freyd, J. J. (2011). Intergenerational associations between trauma and dissociation. Journal of Family Violence, 26(3), 217–225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-011-9357-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iyadurai, L., Visser, R. M., Lau-Zhu, A., Porcheret, K., Horsch, A., Holmes, E. A., & James, E. L. (2019). Intrusive memories of trauma: A target for research bridging cognitive science and its clinical application. Clinical Psychology Review, 69, 67–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2018.08.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaffe, A. E., DiLillo, D., Hoffman, L., Haikalis, M., & Dykstra, R. E. (2015). Does it hurt to ask? A meta-analysis of participant reactions to trauma research. Clinical Psychology Review, 40, 40–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2015.05.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaehler, L. A., & Freyd, J. J. (2009). Borderline personality characteristics: A betrayal trauma approach. Psychological Trauma, 1(4), 261–268. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017833
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kajeepeta, S., Gelaye, B., Jackson, C. L., & Williams, M. A. (2015). Adverse childhood experiences are associated with adult sleep disorders: A systematic review. Sleep Medicine, 16(3), 320–330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2014.12.013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kline, N. K., & Palm Reed, K. M. (2021). Betrayal vs. NonBetrayal trauma: Examining the different effects of social support and emotion regulation on PTSD symptom severity. Psychological Trauma, 13(7), 802–809. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000983
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laskemoen, J. F., Aas, M., Vaskinn, A., Berg, A. O., Lunding, S. H., Barrett, E. A., Melle, I., & Simonsen, C. (2021). Sleep disturbance mediates the link between childhood trauma and clinical outcome in severe mental disorders. Psychological Medicine, 51(14), 2337–2346. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291720000914
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawson, D. M., & Akay-Sullivan, S. (2020). Considerations of dissociation, betrayal trauma, and complex trauma in the treatment of incest. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 29(6), 677–696. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2020.1751369
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loewenstein, R. J. (2018). Dissociation debates: Everything you know is wrong. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 20(3), 229–242. https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2018.20.3/rloewenstein
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynch, K. S., & Lachman, M. E. (2020). The effects of lifetime trauma exposure on cognitive functioning in midlife. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 33(5), 773–782. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22522
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynn, S. J., Polizzi, C., Merckelbach, H., Chiu, C. D., Maxwell, R., van Heugten, D., & Lilienfeld, S. O. (2022). Dissociation and dissociative disorders reconsidered: Beyond sociocognitive and trauma models toward a transtheoretical framework. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 18(1), 259–289. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-081219-102424
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Martin, C. G., Cromer, L. D., DePrince, A. P., & Freyd, J. J. (2013). The role of cumulative trauma, betrayal, and appraisals in understanding trauma symptomatology. Psychological Trauma: theory, Research, Practice and Policy, 52(2), 110–118. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025686
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Matulis, S., Loos, L., Langguth, N., Schreiber, F., Gutermann, J., Gawrilow, C., & Steil, R. (2015). Reliability, factor structure, and validity of the German version of the Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children in a sample of adolescents. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 6(1), 27966. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v6.27966
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McNally, R. J. (2007). Betrayal trauma theory: A critical appraisal. Memory (Hove, England), 15(3), 280–294. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658210701256506
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McWhorter, K. L., Parks, C. G., D’Aloisio, A. A., Rojo-Wissar, D. M., Sandler, D. P., & Jackson, C. L. (2019). Traumatic childhood experiences and multiple dimensions of poor sleep among adult women. Sleep, 42(8), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/zsz108
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nguyen-Feng, V. N., Clark, C. J., & Butler, M. E. (2019). Yoga as an intervention for psychological symptoms following trauma: A systematic review and quantitative synthesis. Psychological Services, 16(3), 513–523. https://doi.org/10.1037/ser0000191
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ozturk, E., Erdogan, B., & Derin, G. (2021). Psychotraumatology and dissociation: A theoretical and clinical approach. Medicine-Science, 10(1), 246–254. https://doi.org/10.5455/medscience.2021.02.041
   Google Scholar
• Panisch, L. S., Rogers, R. G., Breen, M. T., Nutt, S., Dahud, S., & Salazar, C. A. (2022). Childhood betrayal trauma, dissociation, and shame impact health-related quality of life among individuals with chronic pelvic pain. Child Abuse & Neglect, 131, 105744. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2022.105744
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Platt, M. G., & Freyd, J. J. (2015). Betray my trust, shame on me: Shame, dissociation, fear, and betrayal trauma. Psychological Trauma, 7(4), 398–404. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000022
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Powers, A., Cross, D., Fani, N., & Bradley, B. (2015). PTSD, emotion dysregulation, and dissociative symptoms in a highly traumatized sample. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 61, 174–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2014.12.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rachakonda, T. D., Balba, N. M., & Lim, M. M. (2018). Trauma-associated sleep disturbances: a distinct sleep disorder? Current Sleep Medicine Reports, 4(2), 143–148. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40675-018-0119-2
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rieder, J. K., Kleshchova, O., & Weierich, M. R. (2022). Trauma characteristics moderate the relation between estradiol and trauma‐related symptoms. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 35(1), 246–256. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22725
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rizeq, J., Flora, D. B., & McCann, D. (2020). Construct validation of the trauma symptom Checklist–40 total and subscale scores. Assessment, 27(5), 1016–1028. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191118791042
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberson, K., & Carter, R. T. (2022). The relationship between race-based traumatic stress and the Trauma Symptom Checklist: Does racial trauma differ in symptom presentation? Traumatology, 28(1), 120–128. https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000306
   Google Scholar
• Ross, C. A. (2007). Borderline personality disorder and dissociation. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 8(1), 71–80. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40675-018-0119-2
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schalinski, I., Breinlinger, S., Hirt, V., Teicher, M. H., Odenwald, M., & Rockstroh, B. (2019). Environmental adversities and psychotic symptoms: The impact of timing of trauma, abuse, and neglect. Schizophrenia Research, 205, 4–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2017.10.034
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schalinski, I., Teicher, M. H., Nischk, D., Hinderer, E., Müller, O., & Rockstroh, B. (2016). Type and timing of adverse childhood experiences differentially affect severity of PTSD, dissociative and depressive symptoms in adult inpatients. BMC Psychiatry, 16(1), 295. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-016-1004-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sinha, S. S. (2016). Trauma-induced insomnia: a novel model for trauma and sleep research. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 25, 74–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2015.01.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, C. P., & Freyd, J. J. (2013). Dangerous safe havens: Institutional betrayal exacerbates sexual trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26(1), 119–124. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21778
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strongman, K. T. (1995). Theories of anxiety. New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 24(2), 4–10.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2014). SAMHSA’s concept of trauma and guidance for a trauma-informed approach. HHS Publication No. (SMA). 14–4884.
   Google Scholar
• Sweeney, A., Clement, S., Filson, B., & Kennedy, A. (2016). Trauma-informed mental healthcare in the UK: what is it and how can we further its development? Mental Health Review Journal, 21(3), 174–192. https://doi.org/10.1108/MHRJ-01-2015-0006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sweeney, A., Filson, B., Kennedy, A., Collinson, L., & Gillard, S. (2018). A paradigm shift: Relationships in trauma-informed mental health services. BJPsych Advances, 24(5), 319–333. https://doi.org/10.1192/bja.2018.29
   Google Scholar
• Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using multivariate statistics (6th ed.). Allyn and Bacon.
   Google Scholar
• Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (2004). Posttraumatic growth: conceptual foundations and empirical evidence. Psychological Inquiry, 15(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli1501_01
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teli, B., Bano, S., & Paul, M. (2021). Socio-Demographic Factors as Predictors of Psychological Health Problems in Betrayal Trauma. International Journal of Emergency Mental Health, 23, 7–13. https://doi.org/10.4172/1522-4821.1000453
   Google Scholar
• Tirone, V., Orlowska, D., Lofgreen, A. M., Blais, R. K., Stevens, N. R., Klassen, B., Held, P., & Zalta, A. K. (2021). The association between social support and posttraumatic stress symptoms among survivors of betrayal trauma: A meta-analysis. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 12(1), 1883925. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2021.1883925
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tully, J., Bhugra, D., Lewis, S. J., Drennan, G., & Markham, S. (2021). Is PTSD overdiagnosed? BMJ, 373, n787. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n787
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Van Assche, L., Van de Ven, L., Vandenbulcke, M., & Luyten, P. (2020). Ghosts from the past? The association between childhood interpersonal trauma, attachment and anxiety and depression in late life. Aging & Mental Health, 24(6), 898–905. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2019.1571017
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van den Berg, L. J. M., Tollenaar, M. S., Spinhoven, P., Penninx, B. W. J. H., & Elzinga, B. M. (2017). A new perspective on PTSD symptoms after traumatic vs stressful life events and the role of gender. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 8(1), 1380470. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2017.1380470
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, Y., Chung, M. C., Wang, N., Yu, X., & Kenardy, J. (2021). Social support and posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 85, 101998. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.101998
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilker, S., Pfeiffer, A., Kolassa, S., Koslowski, D., Elbert, T., & Kolassa, I. T. (2015). How to quantify exposure to traumatic stress? Reliability and predictive validity of measures for cumulative trauma exposure in a post-conflict population. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 6(1), 28306. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v6.28306
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wills, C., Cuevas, C. A., & Sabina, C. (2022). The role of the victim–offender relationship on psychological distress among Latinx women: A betrayal trauma perspective. Psychological Trauma, 14(1), 20–28. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000923
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zlotnick, C., Johnson, J., Kohn, R., Vicente, B., Rioseco, P., & Saldivia, S. (2008). Childhood trauma, trauma in adulthood, and psychiatric diagnoses: Results from a community sample. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 49(2), 163–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2007.08.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar