Trauma-Related Shame, Characterological Self-Blame, and Psychological Outcomes Among Sexual Assault Survivors

References

• Abramson, L. Y., Metalsky, G. I., & Alloy, L. B. (1989). Hopelessness depression: A theory-based subtype of depression. Psychological Review, 96(2), 358–372. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.96.2.358
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahrens, C. E. (2006). Being silenced: The impact of negative social reactions on the disclosure of rape. American Journal of Community Psychology, 38(3-4), 263–274. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-006-9069-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alix, S., Cossette, L., Hébert, M., Cyr, M., & Frappier, J.-Y. (2017). Posttraumatic stress disorder and suicidal ideation among sexually abused adolescent girls: The mediating role of shame. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 26(2), 158–174. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2017.1280577
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andrews, B., Qian, M., & Valentine, J. D. (2002). Predicting depressive symptoms with a new measure of shame: The Experience of Shame Scale. The British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 41(Pt 1), 29–42. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466502163778
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Antony, M. M., Bieling, P. J., Cox, B. J., Enns, M. W., & Swinson, R. P. (1998). Psychometric properties of the 42-item and 21-item versions of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales in clinical groups and a community sample. Psychological Assessment, 10(2), 176–181. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.10.2.176
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Au, T. M., Sauer-Zavala, S., King, M. W., Petrocchi, N., Barlow, D. H., & Litz, B. T. (2017). Compassion-based therapy for trauma-related shame and posttraumatic stress: Initial evaluation using a multiple baseline design. Behavior Therapy, 48(2), 207–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2016.11.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beck, J. G., McNiff, J., Clapp, J. D., Olsen, S. A., Avery, M. L., & Hagewood, J. H. (2011). Exploring negative emotion in women experiencing intimate partner violence: Shame, guilt, and PTSD. Behavior Therapy, 42(4), 740–750. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2011.04.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhuptani, P. H., & Messman, T. L. (2021). Self-compassion and shame among rape survivors. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(17-18), NP16575–NP16595. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605211021994
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhuptani, P. H., & Messman-Moore, T. L. (2019). Blame and shame in sexual assault. In W. T. O'Donohue & P. A. Schewe (Eds.), Handbook of sexual assault and sexual assault prevention (pp. 309–322). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557988311414045
   Google Scholar
• Breitenbecher, K. H. (2006). The relationships among self-blame, psychological distress, and sexual victimization. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21(5), 597–611. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260506286842
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, B. (2006). Shame resilience theory: A grounded theory study on women and shame. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services, 87(1), 43–52. https://doi.org/10.1606/1044-3894.3483
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Budden, A. (2009). The role of shame in posttraumatic stress disorder: A proposal for a socio-emotional model for DSM-V. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 69(7), 1032–1039. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.07.032
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byrne, C. A., Petri, J. M., & Oh, J. K. (2021). Changes in female rape myth acceptance among college students: A 20-year perspective. Sex Roles, 85(9-10), 542–557. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-021-01231-8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell, R., Dworkin, E., & Cabral, G. (2009). An ecological model of the impact of sexual assault on women’s mental health. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 10(3), 225–246. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838009334456
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caravaca Sánchez, F., Ignatyev, Y., & Mundt, A. P. (2019). Associations between childhood abuse, mental health problems, and suicide risk among male prison populations in Spain. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health: CBMH, 29(1), 18–30. https://doi.org/10.1002/cbm.2099
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carey, K. B., Norris, A. L., Durney, S. E., Shepardson, R. L., & Carey, M. P. (2018). Mental health consequences of sexual assault among first-year college women. Journal of American College Health, 66(6), 480–486. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2018.1431915
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Choudhary, E., Smith, M., & Bossarte, R. M. (2012). Depression, anxiety, and symptom profiles among female and male victims of sexual violence. American Journal of Men’s Health, 6(1), 28–36. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557988311414045
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cook, J. M., Pilver, C., Dinnen, S., Schnurr, P. P., & Hoff, R. (2013). Prevalence of physical and sexual assault and mental health disorders in older women: Findings from a nationally representative sample. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 21(9), 877–886. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2013.01.016
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Creighton, C. D., & Jones, A. C. (2012). Psychological profiles of adult sexual assault victims. Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine, 19(1), 35–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jflm.2011.10.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeCou, C. R., Cole, T. T., Lynch, S. M., Wong, M. M., & Matthews, K. C. (2017). Assault-related shame mediates the association between negative social reactions to disclosure of sexual assault and psychological distress. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice and Policy, 9(2), 166–172. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000186
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeCou, C. R., Mahoney, C. T., Kaplan, S. P., & Lynch, S. M. (2019). Coping self-efficacy and trauma-related shame mediate the association between negative social reactions to sexual assault and PTSD symptoms. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice and Policy, 11(1), 51–54. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000379
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Domino, J. L., Whiteman, S. E., Weathers, F. W., Blevins, C. T., & Davis, M. T. (2020). Predicting PTSD and depression following sexual assault: The role of perceived life threat, post-traumatic cognitions, victim-perpetrator relationship, and social support. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 29(6), 680–698. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2019.1710634
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donde, S. D., Ragsdale, S. K. A., Koss, M. P., & Zucker, A. N. (2018). If it wasn’t rape, was it sexual assault? Comparing rape and sexual assault acknowledgment in college women who have experienced rape. Violence against Women, 24(14), 1718–1738. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801217743339
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Douglas, B. D., Ewell, P. J., & Brauer, M. (2023). Data quality in online human-subjects research: Comparisons between MTurk, Prolific, CloudResearch, Qualtrics, and SONA. PLoS One, 18(3), e0279720. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0279720
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehlers, A., Clark, D. M., Hackmann, A., McManus, F., & Fennell, M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43(4), 413–431. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(99)00123-0
   Google Scholar
• Finkelhor, D., Shattuck, A., Turner, H. A., & Hamby, S. L. (2014). The lifetime prevalence of child sexual abuse and sexual assault assessed in late adolescence. The Journal of Adolescent Health, 55(3), 329–333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.12.026
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frazier, P. A. (1990). Victim attributions and post-rape trauma. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59(2), 298–304. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.59.2.298
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frazier, P. A. (2003). Perceived control and distress following sexual assault: A longitudinal test of a new model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(6), 1257–1269. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.6.1257
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frazier, P. A., & Schauben, L. J. (1994). Causal attributions and recovery from rape and other stressful life events. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 13(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.1994.13.1.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frank, E., & Anderson, B. P. (1987). Psychiatric disorders in rape victims: Past history and current symptomatology. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 28(1), 77–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-440X(87)90047-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilbert, P. (2011). Shame in psychotherapy and the role of compassion focused therapy. In R. L. Dearing & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Shame in the therapy hour (pp. 325–354). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/12326-000
   Google Scholar
• Gloster, A. T., Rhoades, H. M., Novy, D., Klotsche, J., Senior, A., Kunik, M., Wilson, N., & Stanley, M. A. (2008). Psychometric properties of the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale-21 in older primary care patients. Journal of Affective Disorders, 110(3), 248–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2008.01.023
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gray, M. J., Pumphrey, J. E., & Lombardo, T. W. (2003). The relationship between dispositional pessimistic attributional style versus trauma-specific attributions and PTSD symptoms. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 17(3), 289–303. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0887-6185(02)00205-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green, S., Moll, J., Deakin, J. F. W., Hulleman, J., & Zahn, R. (2013). Proneness to decreased negative emotions in major depressive disorder when blaming others rather than oneself. Psychopathology, 46(1), 34–44. https://doi.org/10.1159/000338632
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamrick, L. A., & Owens, G. P. (2019). Exploring the mediating role of self‐blame and coping in the relationships between self‐compassion and distress in females following the sexual assault. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 75(4), 766–779. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22730
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hassija, C. M., & Gray, M. J. (2013). Adaptive variants of controllability attributions among survivors of sexual assault. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 6(4), 342–357. https://doi.org/10.1521/ijct.2013.6.4.342
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hawkins, L., Centifanti, L. C. M., Holman, N., & Taylor, P. (2018). Parental adjustment following pediatric burn injury: The role of guilt, shame, and self-compassion. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 44(2), 229–237. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jsy079
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes, A. Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. The Guilford Press (2018). Second.
   Google Scholar
• Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Janoff-Bulman, R. (1979). Characterological versus behavioral self-blame: Inquiries into depression and rape. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(10), 1798–1809. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.37.10.1798
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katz, J., May, P., Sörensen, S., & DelTosta, J. (2010). Sexual revictimization during women’s first year of college: Self-blame and sexual refusal assertiveness as possible mechanisms. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25(11), 2113–2126. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260509354515
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kennedy, A. C., & Prock, K. A. (2018). “I still feel like I am not normal”: A review of the role of stigma and stigmatization among female survivors of child sexual abuse, sexual assault, and intimate partner violence. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 19(5), 512–527. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838016673601
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koss, M. P., Figueredo, A. J., & Prince, R. J. (2002). Cognitive mediation of rape's mental, physical and social health impact: Tests of four models in cross-sectional data. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70(4), 926–941. 10.1037//0022-006X.70.4.926
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koss, M. P., & Figueredo, A. J. (2004). Cognitive mediation of rape’s mental health impact: Constructive replication of a cross-sectional model in longitudinal data. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28(4), 273–286. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2004.00145.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lickel, B., Kushlev, K., Savalei, V., Matta, S., & Schmader, T. (2014). Shame and the motivation to change the self. Emotion, 14(6), 1049–1061. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038235
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lovibond, P. F., & Lovibond, S. H. (1995). The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33(3), 335–343. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(94)00075-U
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lutwak, N., Panish, J., & Ferrari, J. (2003). Shame and guilt: Characterological vs. behavioral self-blame and their relationship to fear of intimacy. Personality and Individual Differences, 35(4), 909–916. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00307-0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malatesta, C. Z., & Wilson, A. (1988). Emotion cognition interaction in personality development: A discrete emotions, functionalist analysis. British Journal of Social Psychology, 27(1), 91–112. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8309.1988.tb00807.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer, C. B., & Taylor, S. E. (1986). Adjustment to rape. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50(6), 1226–1234. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.50.6.1226
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, A. K., Markman, K. D., & Handley, I. M. (2007). Self-blame among sexual assault victims prospectively predicts revictimization: A perceived sociolegal context model of risk. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 29(2), 129–136. https://doi.org/10.1080/01973530701331585
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Möller, T. A., Bäckström, T., Söndergaard, H. P., & Helström, L. (2014). Identifying risk factors for PTSD in women seeking medical help after rape. PLoS One, 9(10), e111136. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0111136
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Øktedalen, T., Hagtvet, K. A., Hoffart, A., Langkaas, T. F., & Smucker, M. (2014). The Trauma Related Shame Inventory: Measuring trauma-related shame among patients with PTSD. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 36(4), 600–615. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-014-9422-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sigurvinsdottir, R., & Ullman, S. E. (2015). Social reactions, self-blame, and problem drinking in adult sexual assault survivors. Psychology of Violence, 5(2), 192–198. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036316
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sigurvinsdottir, R., Ullman, S. E., & Canetto, S. S. (2020). Self-blame, psychological distress, and suicidality among African American female sexual assault survivors. Traumatology, 26(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000195
   Google Scholar
• Smith, S. G., Zhang, X., Basile, K. C., Merrick, M. T., Wang, J., Kresnow, M., & Chen, J. (2018). The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS): 2015 data brief – Updated release. https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/2015data-brief508.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Stein, M. B., Lang, A. J., Laffaye, C., Satz, L. E., Lenox, R. J., & Dresselhaus, T. R. (2004). Relationship of sexual assault history to somatic symptoms and health anxiety in women. General Hospital Psychiatry, 26(3), 178–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2003.11.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tangney, J. P. (1995). Shame and guilt in interpersonal relationships. In J. P. Tangney & K. W. Fischer (Eds.), Self-conscious emotions: The psychology of shame, guilt, embarrassment, and pride (pp. 114–139). Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Tangney, J. P. (1996). Conceptual and methodological issues in the assessment of shame and guilt. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 34(9), 741–754. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(96)00034-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tilghman-Osborne, C., Cole, D. A., Felton, J. W., & Ciesla, J. A. (2008). Relation of guilt, shame, behavioral and characterological self-blame to depressive symptoms in adolescents over time. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 27(8), 809–842. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2008.27.8.809
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ullman, S. E., & Najdowski, C. J. (2011). Prospective changes in attributions of self-blame and social reactions to women’s disclosures of adult sexual assault. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26(10), 1934–1962. 10.1177/0886260510372940
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ullman, S. E. (2014). Correlates of posttraumatic growth in adult sexual assault victims. Traumatology, 20(3), 219–224. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0099402
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ullman, S. E., & Najdowski, C. J. (2009). Correlates of serious suicidal ideation and attempts in female adult sexual assault survivors. Suicide & Life-Threatening Behavior, 39(1), 47–57. https://doi.org/10.1521/suli.2009.39.1.47
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vidal, M. E., & Petrak, J. (2007). Shame and adult sexual assault: A study with a group of female survivors recruited from an East London population. Sexual and Relationship Therapy, 22(2), 159–171. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681990600784143
   Google Scholar
• Weathers, F. W., Blake, D. D., Schnurr, P. P., Kaloupek, D. G., Marx, B. P., & Keane, T. M. (2013). The life events checklist for DSM-5 (LEC-5). National Center for PTSD www.ptsd.va.gov
   Google Scholar
• Weingarten, C. A., Baker, C. K., & Einolf, C. J. (2023). “There is no one way to get over it”: An examination of psychotherapy and complementary therapy use within a sample of survivors who experienced sexual violence. Violence against Women, 29(14), 2941–2963. https://doi.org/10.1177/10778012231196053
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson, J. P., Drozdek, B., & Turkovic, S. (2006). Posttraumatic shame and guilt. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 7(2), 122–141. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838005285914
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zahn, R., Lythe, K. E., Gethin, J. A., Green, S., Deakin, J. F. W., Young, A. H., & Moll, J. (2015). The role of self-blame and worthlessness in the psychopathology of major depressive disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 186, 337–341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2015.08.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar