Dismantling Structural Racism in Child and Adolescent Psychology: A Call to Action to Transform Healthcare, Education, Child Welfare, and the Psychology Workforce to Effectively Promote BIPOC Youth Health and Development

References

• Aboussouan, A., Snow, A., Cerel, J., & Tucker, R. P. (2019). Non-suicidal self-injury, suicide ideation, and past suicide attempts: Comparison between transgender and gender diverse veterans and non-veterans. Journal of Affective Disorders, 259, 186–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.08.046
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abramovich, A., de Oliveira, C., Kiran, T., Iwajomo, T., Ross, L. E., & Kurdyak, P. (2020). Assessment of health conditions and health service use among transgender patients in Canada. The JAMA Network Open, 3(8), e2015036. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.15036
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alegría, M., & Green, J. G. (2015). Disparities in child and adolescent mental health and mental health services in the U.S. William T. Grant Foundation. http://cfs.cbcs.usf.edu/projects-research/_docs/Disparities_in_child_and_adolescent_health.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Alegría, M., Lin, J. Y., Green, J. G., Sampson, N. A., Gruber, M. J., & Kessler, R. C. (2012). Role of referrals in mental health service disparities for racial and ethnic minority youth. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 51(7), 703–711. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2012.05.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alegría, M., O’Malley, I. S., DiMarzio, K., & Zhen Duan, J. (2022). Framework for understanding and addressing racial and ethnic disparities in children’s mental health. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 31(2), 179–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2021.11.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alvarez, K., Polanco-Roman, L., Samuel Breslow, A., & Molock, S. (2022). Structural racism and suicide prevention for ethnoracially minoritized youth: A conceptual framework and illustration across systems. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 179(6), 422–433. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.21101001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Psychological Association. (2018). Demographics of the U.S. psychology workforce: Findings from the 2007-16 American community survey. Author. https://nces.ed.gov/FCSM/pdf/F3_Lin_2018FCSM.pdf
   Google Scholar
• American Psychological Association. (2021). Apology to people of color for APA’s role in promoting, perpetuating, and failing to challenge racism, racial discrimination, and human hierarchy in U.S. https://www.apa.org/about/policy/racism-apology
   Google Scholar
• Anyon, Y. (2011). Reducing racial disparities and disproportionalities in the child welfare system: Policy perspectives about how to serve the best interests of African American youth. Children and Youth Services Review, 33(2), 242–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2010.09.007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asarnow, J. R., Rozenman, M., Wiblin, J., & Zeltzer, L. (2015). Integrated medical-behavioral care compared with usual primary care for child and adolescent behavioral health: A meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatrics, 169(10), 929–937. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2015.1141
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aspen Institute. (2016, July 11). 11 terms you should know to better understand structural racism. The Aspen Institute. https://www.aspeninstitute.org/blog-posts/structural-racism-definition
   Google Scholar
• Bailey, Z. D., Feldman, J. M., Bassett, M. T., & Malina, D. (2021). How structural racism works—Racist policies as a root cause of U.S. Racial health inequities. The New England Journal of Medicine, 384(8), 768–773. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMms2025396
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bauer, L., & Thomas, J. L. (2019, December 15). Throwaway kids: We are sending more foster kids to prison than college. The Kansas City Star, 1–10.
   Google Scholar
• Ben, J., Kelly, D., & Paradies, Y. (2020). Contemporary anti-racism: A review of effective practice. In J. Solomos (Ed.), Routledge international handbook of contemporary racisms (pp. 205–215). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Bernard, D., Gaskin-Wasson, A., Jones, S., Lee, D., Neal, A., Sosoo, E., Willis, H., & Neblett, E. (2023). Diversifying clinical child and adolescent psychology: A change gonna come. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2023.2191284
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonham, E., Snethen, J. A., Marino, M. A., Oruche, U., & Browne, N. T. (2023). American Academy of Nursing expert panel consensus statement on inequities in the juvenile justice system rooted in systemic and structural racism. Nursing Outlook, 71(1), 101889. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.outlook.2022.10.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonnett, A. (2006). The Americanisation of anti-racism? Global power and hegemony in ethnic equity. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 32(7), 1083–1103. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691830600821778
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouchrika, I. (2022). 101 American school statistics: 2023 data, trends & predictions. https://research.com/education/american-school-statistics
   Google Scholar
• Bowser, B. P. (Ed.). (1995). Racism and anti-racism in world perspective. Sage Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Brannon, T. N., & Lin, A. (2021). “Pride and prejudice” pathways to belonging: Implications for inclusive diversity practices within mainstream institutions. The American Psychologist, 76(3), 488–501. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000643
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Buchanan, N. T., & Wiklund, L. O. (2020). Why clinical science must change or die: Integrating intersectionality and social justice. Women & Therapy, 43(3–4), 309–329. https://doi.org/10.1080/02703149.2020.1729470
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burke, L. M., & Schwalbach, J. (2021). Housing redlining and its lingering effects on education opportunity (Backgrounder No. 3594; pp. 1–13). Heritage Foundation. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED612951
   Google Scholar
• Burns, B. J., Phillips, S. D., Wagner, H. R., Barth, R. P., Kolko, D. J., Campbell, Y., & Landsverk, J. (2004). Mental health need and access to mental health services by youths involved with child welfare: A national survey. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 43(8), 960–970. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.chi.0000127590.95585.65
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caldwell. (2005). Culturally competent research with American Indians and Alaska Natives: Findings and recommendations of the first symposium of the work group on American Indian Research and Program evaluation methodology. American Indian and Alaska Native Mental Health Research, 12(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.5820/aian.1201.2005.1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Callahan, J. L., Smotherman, J. M., Dziurzynski, K. E., Love, P. K., Kilmer, E. D., Niemann, Y. F., & Ruggero, C. J. (2018). Diversity in the professional psychology training-to-workforce pipeline: Results from doctoral psychology student population data. Training and Education in Professional Psychology, 12(4), 273–285. https://doi.org/10.1037/tep0000203
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carbajal, P. C. (2020). From Hispanic to Latiné: Hispanic heritage month and the terms that bind us. The New York public library. https://www.nypl.org/blog/2020/09/29/hispanic-heritage-month-terms-bind-us
   Google Scholar
• Carrero Pinedo, A., Caso, T. J., Rivera, R. M., Carballea, D., & Louis, E. F. (2022). Black, indigenous, and trainees of color stress and resilience: The role of training and education in decolonizing psychology. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 14(S1), S140–147. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0001187
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Castro-Olivo, S. M. (2017). Introduction to special issue: Culturally responsive school-based mental health interventions. Contemporary School Psychology, 21(3), 177–180. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40688-017-0137-y
   Google Scholar
• Castro-Ramirez, F., Al-Suwaidi, M., Garcia, P., Rankin, O., Ricard, J. R., & Nock, M. K. (2021). Racism and poverty are barriers to the treatment of youth mental health concerns. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 50(4), 534–546. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2021.1941058
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021). Youth risk behavior surveillance system (YRBSS). www.cdc.gov/YRBSS
   Google Scholar
• Chen, B. C., Lui, J. H. L., Benson, L. A., Lin, Y.-J. R., Ponce, N. A., Innes-Gomberg, D., & Lau, A. S. (2022). After the crisis: Racial/ethnic disparities and predictors of care use following youth psychiatric emergencies. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2022.2127103
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, B. C., Lui, J. H. L., Liu, V., Wright, B. A., Benson, L. A., Lin, Y.-J. R., & Lau, A. S. (2022). Mapping racial/ethnic disparities in youth psychiatric emergencies and associations with neighborhood racial composition, child opportunity, and inequality. Clinical Psychological Science, 216770262211217. https://doi.org/10.1177/21677026221121762
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Choate, L. H., & Manton, J. (2014). Teen court counseling groups: Facilitating positive change for adolescents who are first-time juvenile offenders. Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 39(4), 345–365. https://doi.org/10.1080/01933922.2014.948236
   Google Scholar
• Cochran, P. A. L., Marshall, C. A., Garcia-Downing, C., Kendall, E., Cook, D., McCubbin, L., & Gover, R. M. S. (2008). Indigenous ways of knowing: Implications for participatory research and community. American Journal of Public Health, 98(1), 22–27. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2006.093641
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collins, C., Hewson, D. L., Munger, R., & Wade, T. (2010). Evolving models of behavioral health integration in primary care. Milbank Memorial Fund. https://www.milbank.org/publications/evolving-models-of-behavioral-health-integration-in-primary-care/
   Google Scholar
• Cook, B. L., Zuvekas, S. H., Chen, J., Progovac, A., & Lincoln, A. K. (2017). Assessing the individual, neighborhood, and policy predictors of disparities in mental health care. Medical Care Research and Review, 74(4), 404–430. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077558716646898
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooper, L. A., Powe, N. R., Robinson, K. A., Price, E. G., Gary, T. L., Jenckes, M. W., Gozu, A., Smarth, C., Palacio, A., Feuerstein, C. J., Bass, E. B., & Powe, N. R. (2004). Strategies for improving minority healthcare quality. The Commonwealth Fund. https://doi.org/10.13016/XFCU-RH1Z
   Google Scholar
• Cooper, L. A., Saha, S., & van Ryn, M. (2022). Mandated implicit bias training for health professionals—A step toward equity in health care. JAMA Health Forum, 3(8), e223250. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamahealthforum.2022.3250
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cope, C., Michalski, D. S., & Fowler, G. A. (2016). Summary report: Student demographics. Graduate study in psychology 2017. American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/education-career/grad/survey-data/2017-student-demographics.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Costello, E. J., He, J., Sampson, N. A., Kessler, R. C., & Merikangas, K. R. (2014). Services for adolescents with psychiatric disorders: 12-month data from the national comorbidity survey–adolescent. Psychiatric Services, 65(3), 359–366. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201100518
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Courtney, M., & Dworsky, A. (2006). Early outcomes for young adults transitioning from out-of-home care in the USA. Child & Family Social Work, 11(3), 209–219. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2206.2006.00433.x
   Google Scholar
• Courtney, M. E., Dworsky, A. L., Cusick, G. R., Havlicek, J., Perez, A., & Keller, T. E. (2007). Midwest evaluation of the adult functioning of former foster youth: Outcomes at age 21. School of Social Work Faculty Publications and Presentations. https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/socwork_fac/60
   Google Scholar
• Covino, N. A. (2019). Developing the behavioral health workforce: Lessons from the States. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 46(6), 689–695. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-019-00963-w
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CS/HB 81—Health Care for Children. (2020). Florida house of representatives. (testimony of health & human services committee). https://www.myfloridahouse.gov/Sections/Bills/billsdetail.aspx?BillId=66485
   Google Scholar
• de Voursney, D., & Huang, L. N. (2016). Meeting the mental health needs of children and youth through integrated care: A systems and policy perspective. Psychological Services, 13(1), 77–91. https://doi.org/10.1037/ser0000045
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeNard, C., Garcia, A., & Circo, E. (2017). Caseworker perspectives on mental health disparities among racial/ethnic minority youth in child welfare. Journal of Social Service Research, 43(4), 470–486. https://doi.org/10.1080/01488376.2017.1299827
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deo, M. (2021, June 6). Why BIPOC fails—Virginia law review. https://www.virginialawreview.org/articles/why-bipoc-fails/
   Google Scholar
• Dettlaff, A. J., & Boyd, R. (2020). Racial disproportionality and disparities in the child welfare system: Why do they exist, and what can be done to address them? The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 692(1), 253–274. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716220980329
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dettlaff, A. J., Weber, K., Pendleton, M., Boyd, R., Bettencourt, B., & Burton, L. (2020). It is not a broken system, it is a system that needs to be broken: The upEND movement to abolish the child welfare system. Journal of Public Child Welfare, 14(5), 500–517. https://doi.org/10.1080/15548732.2020.1814542
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dragomir, R. R., & Tadros, E. (2020). Exploring the impacts of racial disparity within the American juvenile justice system. Juvenile & Family Court Journal, 71(2), 61–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfcj.12165
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duong, M. T., Bruns, E. J., Lee, K., Cox, S., Coifman, J., Mayworm, A., & Lyon, A. R. (2021). Rates of mental health service utilization by children and adolescents in schools and other common service settings: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 48(3), 420–439. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-020-01080-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• EdBuild. (2019). 23 billion. http://edbuild.org/content/23-billion
   Google Scholar
• Esquivel, P. (2022, September 1). Students wait months for mental health help. ‘We’re bombarded,’ counselor says. Los Angeles Times. https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2022-09-01/california-students-wait-months-for-mental-health-counseling
   Google Scholar
• FitzGerald, C., Martin, A., Berner, D., & Hurst, S. (2019). Interventions designed to reduce implicit prejudices and implicit stereotypes in real world contexts: A systematic review. BMC Psychology, 7(1), 29. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-019-0299-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fix, R. L., Testa, E. G., Thurston, I. B., Gray, W. N., & Russell, M. T. (2022). Anti-racism strategies in pediatric psychology: Using STYLE can help children overcome adverse experiences with police. Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings, 29(2), 262–273. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10880-021-09804-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friedman, A., Howard, J., Shaw, E. K., Cohen, D. J., Shahidi, L., & Ferrante, J. M. (2016). Facilitators and barriers to care coordination in patient-centered medical homes (PCMHs) from coordinators’ perspectives. Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine, 29(1), 90–101. https://doi.org/10.3122/jabfm.2016.01.150175
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fryberg, S. A., Markus, H. R., Oyserman, D., & Stone, J. M. (2008). Of warrior chiefs and Indian princesses: The psychological consequences of American Indian mascots. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 30(3), 208–218. https://doi.org/10.1080/01973530802375003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galán, C. A., Bekele, B., Boness, C., Bowdring, M., Call, C., Hails, K., McPhee, J., Mendes, S. H., Moses, J., Northrup, J., Rupert, P., Savell, S., Sequeira, S., Tervo-Clemmens, B., Tung, I., Vanwoerden, S., Womack, S., & Yilmaz, B. (2021). Editorial: A call to action for an antiracist clinical science. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology: The Official Journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53, 50(1), 12–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2020.1860066
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galán, C. A., Bowdring, M. A., Tung, I., Call, C. C., Boness, C. L., & Northrup, J. (2023). Real change or performative anti-racism? Clinical psychology programs’ efforts to recruit and retain BIPOC scholars. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2023.2203930
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garcia, A., Aisenberg, E., & Harachi, T. (2012). Pathways to service inequalities among Latinos in the child welfare system. Children and Youth Services Review, 34(5), 1060–1071. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2012.02.011
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garcia, A. R., Circo, E., DeNard, C., & Hernandez, N. (2015). Barriers and facilitators to delivering effective mental health practice strategies for youth and families served by the child welfare system. Children and Youth Services Review, 52, 110–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2015.03.008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• García Coll, C., Lamberty, G., Jenkins, R., McAdoo, H. P., Crnic, K., Wasik, B. H., & Vázquez García, H. (1996). An integrative model for the study of developmental competencies in minority children. Child Development, 67(5), 1891–1914. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131600
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Girvan, E. J., Gion, C., McIntosh, K., & Smolkowski, K. (2017). The relative contribution of subjective office referrals to racial disproportionality in school discipline. School Psychology Quarterly, 32(3), 392–404. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000178
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gone, J. P., & Trimble, J. E. (2012). American Indian and Alaska Native mental health: Diverse perspectives on enduring disparities. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 8(1), 131–160. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032511-143127
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grinnell-Davis, C., Dunnigan, A., & Stevens, B. B. (2023). Indigenous-centered racial disproportionality in American foster care: A national population study. Journal of Public Child Welfare, 17(2), 280–304. https://doi.org/10.1080/15548732.2021.2022565
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guo, S., Kataoka, S. H., Bear, L., & Lau, A. S. (2014). Differences in school-based referrals for mental health care: Understanding racial/ethnic disparities between Asian American and Latino youth. School Mental Health, 6(1), 27–39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-013-9108-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halgunseth, L. C., Witherspoon, D. P., & Wray Lake, L. (2022). Dismantling systems and improving contexts to support the development of BIPOC youth. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 32(2), 386–397. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12773
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Havlicek, J. R., Garcia, A. R., & Smith, D. C. (2013). Mental health and substance use disorders among foster youth transitioning to adulthood: Past research and future directions. Children and Youth Services Review, 35(1), 194–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2012.10.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hendricks, M. L., & Testa, R. J. (2012). A conceptual framework for clinical work with transgender and gender nonconforming clients: An adaptation of the minority stress model. Professional Psychology, Research and Practice, 43(5), 460–467. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029597
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ho, J., Yeh, M., McCabe, K., & Hough, R. L. (2007). Parental cultural affiliation and youth mental health service use. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36(4), 529–542. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-006-9114-x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hodgkinson, S., Godoy, L., Beers, L. S., & Lewin, A. (2017). Improving mental health access for low-income children and families in the primary care setting. Pediatrics, 139(1), e20151175. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2015-1175
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hoge, M. A., Vanderploeg, J., Paris, M., Lang, J. M., & Olezeski, C. (2022). Emergency department use by children and youth with mental health conditions: A health equity agenda. Community Mental Health Journal, 58(7), 1225–1239. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-022-00937-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hook, J. N., Davis, D. E., Owen, J., Worthington, E. L., & Utsey, S. O. (2013). Cultural humility: Measuring openness to culturally diverse clients. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 60(3), 353–366. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032595
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu, J., Wu, T., Damodaran, S., Tabb, K. M., Bauer, A., & Huang, H. (2020). The effectiveness of collaborative care on depression outcomes for racial/ethnic minority populations in primary care: A systematic review. Psychosomatics, 61(6), 632–644. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psym.2020.03.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iruka, I. U., Gardner-Neblett, N., Telfer, N. A., Ibekwe-Okafor, N., Curenton, S. M., Sims, J., Sansbury, A. B., & Neblett, E. W. (2022). Effects of racism on child development: Advancing antiracist developmental science. Annual Review of Developmental Psychology, 4(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-121020-031339
   Google Scholar
• Javdani, S., Berezin, M., & April, K. (2023). A treatment-to-prison-pipeline? Scoping review and multimethod examination of legal consequences of residential treatment among adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2023.2178003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, C. P. (2000). Levels of racism: A theoretic framework and a gardener’s tale. American Journal of Public Health, 90(8), 1212–1215. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.90.8.1212
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, J. M. (1972). Prejudice and racism. McGraw-Hill Companies.
   Google Scholar
• Jones, J. M. (2023). Surviving while Black: Systemic racism and psychological resilience. Annual Review of Psychology, 74(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-020822-052232
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kase, C., Hoover, S., Boyd, G., West, K. D., Dubenitz, J., Trivedi, P. A., Peterson, H. J., & Stein, B. D. (2017). Educational outcomes associated with school behavioral health interventions: A review of the literature. The Journal of School Health, 87(7), 554–562. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12524
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keenan, H. B. (2021). The mission project: Teaching history and avoiding the past in California elementary schools. Harvard Educational Review, 91(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.17763/1943-5045-91.1.109
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kempner, A., West, B., & Directors. (2021). Imagining the Indian: The fight against Native American mascoting [Documentary]. The Ciesla Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Khuu, B. P., Lee, H. Y., Zhou, A. Q., Shin, J., & Lee, R. M. (2016). Healthcare providers’ perspectives on parental health literacy and child health outcomes among Southeast Asian American immigrants and refugees. Children and Youth Services Review, 67, 220–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.06.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, M., & Garcia, A. R. (2016). Measuring racial/ethnic disparities in mental health service use among children referred to the child welfare system. Child Maltreatment, 21(3), 218–227. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559516656397
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, M., Garcia, A. R., Jung, N., & Barnhart, S. (2020). Rates and predictors of mental health service use among dual system youth. Children and Youth Services Review, 114, 105024. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105024
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lam, J. S. H., Abramovich, A., Victor, J. C., Zaheer, J., & Kurdyak, P. (2022). Characteristics of transgender individuals with emergency department visits and hospitalizations for mental health. Psychiatric Services, 73(7), 722–729. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.202100306
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ledesma, M. C., & Calderón, D. (2015). Critical race theory in education: A review of past literature and a look to the future. Qualitative Inquiry, 21(3), 206–222. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077800414557825
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Legislative Fiscal Bureau. (2019). 2019-2021 Wisconsin state budget. https://docs.legis.wisconsin.gov/misc/lfb/budget/2019_21_biennial_budget/202_comparative_summary_of_provisions_2019_act_9_august_2019_entire_document
   Google Scholar
• Leslie, L. K., Landsverk, J., Ezzet-Lofstrom, R., Tschann, J. M., Slymen, D. J., & Garland, A. F. (2000). Children in foster care: Factors influencing outpatient mental health service use. Child Abuse & Neglect, 24(4), 465–476. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(00)00116-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis, M. E., Hartwell, E. E., & Myhra, L. L. (2018). Decolonizing mental health services for indigenous clients: A training program for mental health professionals. American Journal of Community Psychology, 62(3–4), 330–339. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12288
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Linjean, M., & Weaver, H. N. (2022). The Indian Child Welfare Act (ICWA): Where we’ve been, where we’re headed, and where we need to go. Journal of Public Child Welfare, 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/15548732.2022.2131696
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, F. F., McRee, E., Coifman, J., Stone, J., Lai, C. K., Yu, C., & Lyon, A. R. (2022). School mental health professionals’ knowledge of stereotypes and implicit bias toward Black and Latinx youths. Psychiatric Services, 73(11), 1308–1311. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.202100253
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Locke, J., Kang-Yi, C. D., Pellecchia, M., Marcus, S., Hadley, T., & Mandell, D. S. (2017). Ethnic disparities in school-based behavioral health service use for children with psychiatric disorders. The Journal of School Health, 87(1), 47–54. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12469
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Love, B. L. (2019). We want to do more than survive: Abolitionist teaching and the pursuit of educational freedom. Beacon Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lukersmith, S., Millington, M., & Salvador-Carulla, L. (2016). What is case management? A scoping and mapping review. International Journal of Integrated Care, 16(4), 2. https://doi.org/10.5334/ijic.2477
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Malott, K. M., Barraclough, S., & Yee, T. (2023). Towards decolonizing diagnosis: A critical review and suggested alternatives. International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 45(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10447-022-09501-0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marotta, P. L., Tolou-Shams, M., Cunningham-Williams, R. M., Washington, D. M., & Voisin, D. (2022). Racial and ethnic disparities, referral source and attrition from outpatient substance use disorder treatment among adolescents in the United States. Youth & Society, 54(1), 148–173. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X20960635
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martinez, J. I., Gudiño, O. G., & Lau, A. S. (2013). Problem-specific racial/ethnic disparities in pathways from maltreatment exposure to specialty mental health service use for youth in child welfare. Child Maltreatment, 18(2), 98–107. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559513483549
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin, J. L., Sharp-Grier, M., & Smith, J. B. (2016). Alternate realities: Racially disparate discipline in classrooms and schools and its effects on Black and Brown students. Leadership and Research in Education, 3(1), 16–33.
   Google Scholar
• Mayes, R. D., & Byrd, J. A. (2022). An antiracist framework for evidence-informed school counseling practice. Professional School Counseling, 26(1a), 2156759X2210867. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X221086740
   Google Scholar
• McGorry, P. D., Mei, C., Chanen, A., Hodges, C., Alvarez-Jimenez, M., & Killackey, E. (2022). Designing and scaling up integrated youth mental health care. World Psychiatry, 21(1), 61–76. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20938
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merritt, D. H. (2020). How do families experience and interact with CPS? The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 692(1), 203–226. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716220979520
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129(5), 674–697. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.674
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michney, T. M., & Winling, L. (2020). New perspectives on New Eeal housing policy: Explicating and mapping HOLC loans to African Americans. Journal of Urban History, 46(1), 150–180. https://doi.org/10.1177/0096144218819429
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Millner, U. C., Maru, M., Ismail, A., & Chakrabarti, U. (2021). Decolonizing mental health practice: Reconstructing an Asian-centric framework through a social justice lens. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 12(4), 333–345. https://doi.org/10.1037/aap0000268
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Misra, S., Kwon, S. C., Abraído-Lanza, A. F., Chebli, P., Trinh-Shevrin, C., & Yi, S. S. (2021). Structural racism and immigrant health in the United States. Health Education & Behavior, 48(3), 332–341. https://doi.org/10.1177/10901981211010676
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore, C., Coates, E., Watson, A., de Heer, R., McLeod, A., & Prudhomme, A. (2022). “It’s important to work with people that look like me”: Black patients’ preferences for patient-provider race concordance. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-022-01435-y
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore, J., & Krehbiel, C. (2016, June). Closing the gap on mental health service disparities through integrated pedia-tric care. American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/pi/families/resources/newsletter/2016/06/integrated-pediatric-care
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Morris, E. W., & Perry, B. L. (2017). Girls behaving badly? Race, gender, and subjective evaluation in the discipline of African American girls. Sociology of Education, 90(2), 127–148. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038040717694876
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mountz, S. (2020). Remapping pipelines and pathways: Listening to queer and transgender youth of color’s trajectories through girls’ juvenile justice facilities. Affilia, 35(2), 177–199. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886109919880517
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muentner, L., Stone, K. J., Davis, L., & Shlafer, R. (2022). Youth at the intersection of parental incarceration and foster care: Examining prevalence, disparities, and mental health. Child Abuse & Neglect, 134, 105910. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2022.105910
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nardone, A., Casey, J. A., Morello-Frosch, R., Mujahid, M., Balmes, J. R., & Thakur, N. (2020). Associations between historical residential redlining and current age-adjusted rates of emergency department visits due to asthma across eight cities in California: An ecological study. The Lancet Planetary Health, 4(1), e24–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(19)30241-4
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• National Congress of American Indians. (2022). National school mascot tracking database: The current numbers. https://www.ncai.org/NCAI_School_Mascot_Tracking_Database_-_Overview_and_Numbers.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Nelson, J. K., Dunn, K. M., & Paradies, Y. (2011). Bystander anti-racism: A review of the literature. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 11(1), 263–284. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-2415.2011.01274.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newcomb, M. E., Hill, R., Buehler, K., Ryan, D. T., Whitton, S. W., & Mustanski, B. (2020). High burden of mental health problems, substance use, violence, and related psychosocial factors in transgender, non-binary, and gender diverse youth and young adults. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49(2), 645–659. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-019-01533-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicholson-Crotty, S., Birchmeier, Z., & Valentine, D. (2009). Exploring the impact of school discipline on racial disproportion in the juvenile justice system. Social Science Quarterly, 90(4), 1003–1018. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6237.2009.00674.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Keefe, V. M., Cwik, M. F., Haroz, E. E., & Barlow, A. (2021). Increasing culturally responsive care and mental health equity with indigenous community mental health workers. Psychological Services, 18(1), 84–92. https://doi.org/10.1037/ser0000358
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Okazaki, S., Kassem, A. M., & Tu, M.-C. (2014). Addressing Asian American mental health disparities: Putting community-based research principles to work. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 5(1), 4–12. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032675
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oluo, I. (2019). So you want to talk about race. Seal Press.
   Google Scholar
• Parent, M. C., Arriaga, A. S., Gobble, T., & Wille, L. (2019). Stress and substance use among sexual and gender minority individuals across the lifespan. Neurobiology of Stress, 10, 100146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ynstr.2018.100146
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park, I. Y., Speer, R., Whitfield, D. L., Kattari, L., Walls, E. N., & Christensen, C. (2022). Predictors of bullying, depression, and suicide attempts among youth: The intersection of race/ethnicity by gender identity. Children and Youth Services Review, 139, 106536. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2022.106536
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paulus, F. W., Ohmann, S., & Popow, C. (2016). Practitioner review: School-based interventions in child mental health. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 57(12), 1337–1359. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12584
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pecora, P. J., Williams, J., Kessler, R. C., Downs, A. C., O’Brien, K., Hiripi, E., & Morello, S. (2003). Assessing the effects of foster care: Early results from the Casey National Alumni study. Casey Family Programs.
   Google Scholar
• Pellicane, M. J., & Ciesla, J. A. (2022). Associations between minority stress, depression, and suicidal ideation and attempts in transgender and gender diverse (TGD) individuals: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 91, 102113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102113
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pellow, D., & Vazin, J. The intersection of race, immigration status, and environmental justice. (2019). Sustainability, 11(14), Article 14. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11143942
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Planey, A. M., Smith, S. M., Moore, S., & Walker, T. D. (2019). Barriers and facilitators to mental health help-seeking among African American youth and their families: A systematic review study. Children and Youth Services Review, 101, 190–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.04.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Puzzanchera, C., Hockenberry, S., & Sickmund, M. (2022). Youth and the juvenile justice system: 2022 national report. National Center for Juvenile Justice.
   Google Scholar
• Rafla-Yuan, E., Moore, S., Carvente-Martinez, H., Yang, P., Balasuriya, L., Jackson, K., McMickens, C., & Robles-Ramamurthy, B. (2022). Striving for equity in community mental health: Opportunities and challenges for integrating care for BIPOC youth. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 31(2), 295–312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2021.11.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reed, K. J. (2022). A scoping review of good methodological practices in research involving transgender, non-binary, and two-spirit youth. Journal of LGBT Youth, 20(2), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/19361653.2022.2092576
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts, D. E. (2009). Shattered bonds: The color of child welfare. Basic Books.
   Google Scholar
• Robinson, M. (2017). Two-spirit and bisexual people: Different umbrella, same rain. Journal of Bisexuality, 17(1), 7–29. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299716.2016.1261266
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rovner, J. (2021). Black disparities in youth incarceration – The sentencing project [fact sheet]. https://www.sentencingproject.org/fact-sheet/black-disparities-in-youth-incarceration/
   Google Scholar
• Sachs, S. (2022). Defending the circle: Countering the attack on the Indian Child Welfare Act (ICWA). Indigenous Policy Journal, 33(2). http://articles.indigenouspolicy.org/index.php/ipj/article/view/878
   Google Scholar
• Sawyer, W. (2019). Youth confinement: The whole pie. https://www.prisonpolicy.org/reports/youth2019.html
   Google Scholar
• Schor, E. (2021). Developing a structure of essential services for a child and adolescent mental health system. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0009.12490
   Google Scholar
• Skiba, R. J., Arredondo, M. I., Gray, C., & Rausch, M. K. (2018). Discipline disparities: New and emerging research in the United States. In The Palgrave International Handbook of School Discipline, Surveillance, and Social Control (1st ed., pp. 235–252). Palgrave Macmillan: Cham.
   Google Scholar
• Smallwood, R., Woods, C., Power, T., & Usher, K. (2021). Understanding the impact of historical trauma due to colonization on the health and well-being of Indigenous young peoples: A systematic scoping review. Journal of Transcultural Nursing, 32(1), 59–68. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043659620935955
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snowden, L. R., Masland, M. C., Libby, A. M., Wallace, N., & Fawley, K. (2008). Racial/Ethnic minority children’s use of psychiatric emergency care in california’s public mental health system. American Journal of Public Health, 98(1), 118–124. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2006.105361
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spencer, M. B., Dupree, D., & Hartmann, T. (1997). A Phenomenological Variant of Ecological Systems Theory (PVEST): A self-organization perspective in context. Development and Psychopathology, 9(4), 817–833. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579497001454
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stephan, S. H., Sugai, G., Lever, N., & Connors, E. (2015). Strategies for integrating mental health into schools via a multitiered system of support. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics, 24(2), 211–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2014.12.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stern, J. A., Barbarin, O., & Cassidy, J. (2022). Working toward anti-racist perspectives in attachment theory, research, and practice. Attachment & Human Development, 24(3), 392–422. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2021.1976933
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2022, March 9). HHS announces nearly $35 million to strengthen mental health support for children and young adults. SAMHSA. https://www.samhsa.gov/newsroom/press-announcements/20220309/hhs-announces-35-million-strengthen-mental-health
   Google Scholar
• The White House. (2021). Fact sheet: Improving access and care for youth mental health and substance use conditions. https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/10/19/fact-sheet-improving-access-and-care-for-youth-mental-health-and-substance-use-conditions/
   Google Scholar
• Thompson, C. E., & Carter, R. T. (Eds.). (1997). Racial identity theory. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203726426
   Google Scholar
• Tilbury, C., & Thoburn, J. (2009). Using racial disproportionality and disparity indicators to measure child welfare outcomes. Children and Youth Services Review, 31(10), 1101–1106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2009.07.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toombs, E., Marshall, N., & Mushquash, C. J. (2021). Residential and nonresidential substance use treatment within Indigenous populations: A systematic review. Journal of Ethnicity in Substance Abuse, 20(2), 316–341. https://doi.org/10.1080/15332640.2019.1622478
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Torres, S. A., Sosa, S. S., Flores Toussaint, R. J., Jolie, S., & Bustos, Y. (2022). Systems of oppression: The impact of discrimination on Latinx immigrant adolescents’ well‐being and development. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 32(2), 501–517. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12751
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• U.S. Census Bureau. (2022). QuickFacts. https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/US/PST045221
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Department of Education. (2021). State nonfiscal public elementary/secondary education survey. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of Data (CCD). https://www.schoolcounselor.org/getmedia/238f136e-ec52-4bf2-94b6-f24c39447022/Ratios-20-21-Alpha.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Wang, C., Do, K. A., Frese, K., & Zheng, L. (2019). Asian immigrant parents’ perception of barriers preventing adolescents from seeking school-based mental health services. School Mental Health, 11(2), 364–377. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-018-9285-0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Washburn, M., Yu, M., LaBrenz, C., & Palmer, A. N. (2022). The impacts of COVID-19 on LGBTQ+ foster youth alumni. Child Abuse & Neglect, 133, 105866. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2022.105866
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wells, R., Hillemeier, M. M., Bai, Y., & Belue, R. (2009). Health service access across racial/ethnic groups of children in the child welfare system. Child Abuse & Neglect, 33(5), 282–292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2008.11.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitaker, A., Torres-Guillén, S., Morton, M., Coyle, S., Mann, A., & Sun, W.-L. (2017). Cops and no counselors: How the lack of school mental health staff is harming students.
   Google Scholar
• Wilson, M. A., Odem, M. A., Walters, T., DePass, A. L., Bean, A. J., & Feldon, D. (2019). A model for holistic review in graduate admissions that decouples the GRE from race, ethnicity, and gender. CBE—Life Sciences Education, 18(1), ar7. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.18-06-0103
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction. (2023). State school-based mental health services grant program. https://dpi.wi.gov/sspw/mental-health/school-based-grant-program
   Google Scholar
• Wood, P. A., Yeh, M., Pan, D., Lambros, K. M., McCabe, K. M., & Hough, R. L. (2005). Exploring the relationship between race/ethnicity, age of first school-based services utilization, and age of first specialty mental health care for at-risk youth. Mental Health Services Research, 7(3), 185–196. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11020-005-5787-0
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yearby, R. (2018). Racial disparities in health status and access to healthcare: The continuation of inequality in the United States due to structural racism. American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 77(3–4), 1113–1152. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajes.12230
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yeh, M., McCabe, K., Hurlburt, M., Hough, R., Hazen, A., Culver, S., Garland, A., & Landsverk, J. (2002). Referral sources, diagnoses, and service types of youth in public outpatient mental health care: A focus on ethnic minorities. The Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Research, 29(1), 45–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02287831
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar