The Role of Exercise in Reducing Childhood and Adolescent PTSD, Anxiety, and Depression

REFERENCES

• American Psychiatric Association . 1980 . Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders , (3rd ed. , Washington , DC : Author .
   Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association . 1987 . Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders , (3rd ed. rev. , Washington , DC : Author .
   Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association . 1994 . Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders , (4th ed. rev , Washington , DC : Author .
   Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association . 2000 . Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders , (4th ed. rev , Arlington , VA : Author .
   Google Scholar
• Annesi , J. 2004 . Relationship between self-efficacy and changes in rated tension and depression for 9 to 12 year old children enrolled in a 12 week afterschool physical activity program . Perceptual and Motor Skills , 99 : 191 – 194 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anessi , J. 2005 . Improvements in self-concept associated with reductions in negative mood in preadolescents enrolled in an after school physical activity program . Psychological Reports , 97 : 400 – 404 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bahrke , M. S. and Smith , R. G. 1985 . Alterations in anxiety of children after exercise and rest . American Corrective Therapy Journal , 19 : 90 – 94 .
   Google Scholar
• Bandura , A. 1977 . Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change . Psychology Review , 84 : 191 – 215 .
   Google Scholar
• Berk , M. 2007 . Should we be targeting exercise as a routine mental health intervention? . Acta Neuropsychiatrica , 19 : 217 – 218 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biddle , S.J. H. and Fox , K. R. 1989 . Exercise and health psychology: Emerging relationships . British Journal of Medical Psychology , 62 : 205 – 216 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breslau , N. , Chilcoat , H. D. , Kessler , R. C. , Peterson , E. L. and Lucia , V. C. 1999 . Vulnerability to assaultive violence: Further specification of the sex difference in post-traumatic stress disorder . Psychology Medicine , 29 : 813 – 821 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breslau , N. , Kessler , R. C. , Chilcoat , H. D. , Schultz , L. R. , Davis , G. C. and Andreski , P. 1998 . Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in the community: The 1996 Detroit area survey of trauma . Archives of General Psychiatry , 55 : 626 – 632 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Busk , P. L. and Serlin , R. C. 1992 . “ Meta-analyses for single-case research ” . In Single-case research design and analysis: New directions for psychology and education , Edited by: Kratochwill , T. R. and Levin , J. R. 187 – 212 . Hillsdale , NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Cardozo , B. L. , Bilukha , O. O. , Gotway , C. A. , Wolfe , M. I. , Gerber , M. L. and Anderson , M. 2005 . Mental health of women in postwar Afghanistan . Journal of Women's Health , 14 : 285 – 293 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carmack , C. L. , de Moor , C. , Boudreaux , E. , Amaral-Melendez , M. and Brantley , P. 1999 . Aerobic fitness and leisure physical activity as moderators of the stress-illness relation . Annals of Behavioral Medicine , 21 : 251 – 257 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conte , J. R. and Schuerman , J. R. 1987 . The effects of sexual abuse on children: A multidimensional view . Journal of Interpersonal Violence , 8 : 115 – 131 .
   Google Scholar
• Crews , D. J. , Lochbaum , M. R. and Landers , D. M. 2004 . Aerobic physical activity effects on psychological well-being in low income Hispanic children . Perceptual and Motor Skills , 98 : 319 – 324 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis , L. and Siegel , L. J. 2000 . Posttraumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents: A review and analysis . Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review , 3 : 135 – 154 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• De Moor , M. H. M. , Beem , A. L. , Stubbe , J. H. , Boomsma , E. J. C. and De Geus , E. J. C. 2006 . Regular exercise, anxiety, depression and personality: A population-based study . Preventive Medicine , 42 : 273 – 279 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diaz , A. B. and Motta , R. W. 2008 . The effects of an aerobic exercise program on posttraumatic stress disorder symptom severity in adolescents . International Journal of Emergency Mental Health , 10 : 49 – 59 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dishman , R. K. and O’Connor , P. J. 2009 . Lessons in exercise neurobiology: The case of endorphins . Mental Health and Physical Activity , 2 : 4 – 9 .
   Google Scholar
• Dubner , A. E. and Motta , R. W. 1999 . Sexually and physically abused foster care children and PTSD . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 67 : 367 – 373 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ensel , W. M. and Lin , N. 2004 . Physical activity and the stress process . Journal of Community Psychology , 32 : 81 – 101 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fairbanks , J. 2008 . The epidemiology of trauma and trauma related disorders in children and youth . PTSD Research Quarterly , 19 : 1 – 8 .
   Google Scholar
• Field , T. , Diego , M. and Sanders , C. E. 2001 . Exercise is positively related to adolescents’ relationships and academics . Adolescence , 36 : 105 – 110 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foa , E. B. and Meadows , E. A. 1997 . Psychosocial treatments of posttraumatic stress disorder: A critical review . Annual Review of Psychology , 48 : 449 – 480 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Folkins , C. H. and Sime , W. E. 1981 . Physical fitness training and mental health . American Psychologist , 36 : 373 – 389 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friedrich , W. N. , Urquiza , A. J. and Beilke , R. 1986 . Behavioral problems in sexually abused young children . Journal of Pediatric Psychology , 11 : 47 – 57 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodwin , R. D. 2006 . Association between coping with anger and feelings of depression among youth . American Journal of Public Health , 96 : 664 – 669 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green , B. L. , Korol Grace , M. , Vary , M. C. , Leonard , M. G. , Glesser , A. C. and Smitson-Cohen , G.C. S. 1991 . Children and disaster: Age gender and parental effects of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms . Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry , 30 : 945 – 951 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kilmer , R. and Gil-Rivas , V. 2010 . Exploring posttraumatic growth in children impacted by Hurricane Katrina: Correlates of the phenomenon and developmental considerations . Child Development , 81 : 1211 – 1227 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larun , L. , Nordheim , L. V. , Ekeland , E. , Hagen , K. B. and Helan , F. 2006 . Exercise in prevention and treatment of anxiety and depression among children and young people . Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews , 3 : 1 – 38 .
   Google Scholar
• Manger , T. A. and Motta , R. W. 2005 . The impact of an exercise program on posttraumatic stress disorder, anxiety, and depression . International Journal of Emergency Mental Health , 7 : 49 – 57 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mannarino , A. P. , Cohen , J. A. , Smith , J. A. and Moore-Motily , S. 1991 . Emotional and behavioral difficulties in sexually abused girls . Journal of Interpersonal Violence , 4 : 437 – 451 .
   Google Scholar
• McNally , R. J. 1991 . Assessment of posttraumatic stress disorder in children . Psychological Assessment , 3 : 531 – 537 .
   Google Scholar
• Mead , G. E. , Morley , W. , Campbell , P. , Greig , C. A. , McMurdo , M. E. T. and Lawlor , D. A. 2009 . Exercise for depression . Mental Health and Physical Activity , 2 : 95 – 96 .
   Google Scholar
• Meiser-Stedman , R. 2002 . Towards a cognitive-behavioral model of PTSD in children and adolescents . Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review , 5 : 217 – 232 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milot , T. , Éthier , L. , St-Laurent , D. and Provost , M. 2010 . The role of trauma symptoms in the development of behavioral problems in maltreated preschoolers . Child Abuse & Neglect , 34 : 225 – 234 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morgan , W. P. 1985 . Affective beneficence of vigorous physical activity . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 17 : 94 – 100 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Institute of Mental Health . 2000 . Depression in children and adolescents Retrieved from http://www.athealth.com/Consumer/disorders/ChildDepression.html
   Google Scholar
• Newman , C. J. 1976 . Children of disaster: Clinical observations of Buffalo Creek . American Journal of Psychiatry , 133 : 306 – 312 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newman , C. L. and Motta , R. W. 2007 . The effect of aerobic exercise on childhood PTSD, anxiety, and depression . International Journal of Emergency Mental Health , 9 : 133 – 158 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Norris , R. , Carroll , D. and Cochrane , R. 1992 . The effects of physical activity and exercise training on psychological stress and well-being in an adolescent population . Journal of Psychosomatic Research , 36 : 55 – 65 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paluska , S. A. and Schwenk , T. L. 2000 . Physical activity and mental health current concepts . Sports Medicine , 29 : 167 – 180 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parfitt , G. and Eston , R. G. 2005 . The relationship between children's habitual activity level and psychological well-being . Acta Paediatrica , 94 : 1791 – 1797 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Penedo , F. J. and Dahn , J. R. 2005 . Exercise and well-being: A review of mental and physical health benefits associated with physical activity . Current Opinion in Psychiatry , 18 : 189 – 193 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pynoos , R. S. , Rodriguez , N. , Steinberg , A. S. , Stuber , M. and Frederick , C. 1998 . The UCLA PTSD Reaction Index for DSM-IV (Revision 1) , Los Angeles , CA : UCLA Trauma Psychiatry Program .
   Google Scholar
• Pynoos , R. S. 1994 . “ Traumatic stress and developmental psychopathology in children and adolescents ” . In Posttraumatic stress disorder: A clinical review , Edited by: Pynoos , R. S. 64 – 68 . Lutherville , MD : Sidran Press .
   Google Scholar
• Pynoos , R. S. , Frederick Nader , C. , Arroyo , K. , Steinberg , W. , Eth , A. and Fairbanks , S.L. 1987 . Life threat and posttraumatic stress in school-age children . Archives of General Psychiatry , 44 : 1057 – 1063 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ranjan , S. and Saraswat , N. 2005 . Tsunami in the cultural frame . Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry , 39 : 840 – 841 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saigh , P. 2004 . Children's PTSD Inventory Manual: A structured Interview for Diagnosing Posttraumatic Stress Disorder , San Antonio , TX : Harcourt Assessments .
   Google Scholar
• Salmon , K. and Bryant , R. A. 2002 . Posttraumatic stress disorder in children: The influence of developmental factors . Clinical Psychology Review , 22 : 163 – 188 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salmon , P. 2001 . Effects of physical exercise on anxiety, depression, and sensitivity to stress: A unifying theory . Clinical Psychology Review , 22 : 163 – 188 .
   Google Scholar
• Saxena , S. , Van Ommeren , M. , Tang , K. C. and Armstrong , T. P. 2005 . Mental health benefits of physical activity . Journal of Mental Health , 14 : 445 – 451 .
   Google Scholar
• Schomer , H. H. and Drake , B. S. 2001 . Physical activity and mental health . International Sports Medicine Journal , 2 : 1 – 9 .
   Google Scholar
• Schwarz , E. D. , McNally , R. J. and Yeh , L. C. 1995 . The trauma response of children and adolescents . Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America , 7 : 229 – 239 .
   Google Scholar
• Silvestri , L. 2001 . Anxiety reduction through aerobic dance and progressive relaxation training . Education , 108 : 34 – 40 .
   Google Scholar
• Strohle , A. , Hofler , M. , Pfister , H. , Muller , A. G. , Hoyer , J. , Wittchen , H. U. and Lieb , R. 2007 . Physical activity and prevalence and incidence of mental disorder in adolescents and young adults . Psychological Medicine , 37 : 1657 – 1666 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Terr , L. C. 1979 . Children of Chowchilla: Study of psychic trauma . The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child , 34 : 547 – 623 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Terr , L. C. 1983 . Chowchilla revisited: The effects of psychic trauma four years after a school bus kidnapping . American Journal of Psychiatry , 140 : 1543 – 1550 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tomson , L. M. , Pangrazi , R. P. , Friedman , G. and Hutchison , N. 2003 . Childhood depressive symptoms, physical activity and health related fitness . Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology , 25 : 419 – 439 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tucker , L. A. , Cole , G. E. and Friedman , G. M. 1986 . Physical fitness: A buffer against stress . Perceptual and Motor Skills , 63 : 955 – 961 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yeung , R. R. 1996 . The acute effect of exercise on mood state . Journal of Psychosomatic Research , 40 : 123 – 141 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar