The dragon dithers: assessing the cautious implementation of China’s Belt and Road Initiative in Iran

References

• Afrasaiabi, Kaveh. 2020. “China, Iran Deal Eyes a Future Decoupled from US.” Asia Times, 10 July. Accessed 31 July 2020. https://asiatimes.com/2020/07/china-iran-deal-eyes-a-future-decoupled-from-us/
   Google Scholar
• Barron, Jeff. 2020. “China’s Crude Oil Imports Surpassed 10 Million Barrels per Day in 2019.” U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), 23 March. Accessed 27 July 2020. https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=43216
   Google Scholar
• Blackwill, Robert D., and Jennifer M. Harris. 2016. War by Other Means: Geoeconomics and Statecraft. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Brautigam, Deborah. 2020. “A Critical Look at Chinese ‘Debt-trap Diplomacy’: The Rise of A Meme.” Area Development and Policy 5 (1): 1–14. doi:10.1080/23792949.2019.1689828.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calabrese, John. 2018. “China’s ‘One Belt, One Road’ (OBOR) Initiative: Envisioning Iran´s Role”. Chap. 10 In China´s Presence in the Middle East: The Implications of the One Belt, One Road Initiative, edited by Anoushiravan Ehteshami and Niv Horesh, 174-191. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Caravelli, Jack. 2011. Beyond Sand and Oil: The Nuclear Middle East. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.
   Google Scholar
• Chalmers, Adam William, and Susanna Theresia Mocker. 2017. “The End of Exceptionalism? Explaining Chinese National Oil Companies’ Overseas Investments.” Review of International Political Economy 24 (1): 119–143. doi:10.1080/09692290.2016.1275743.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaziza, Mordechai. 2019. “China’s Economic Diplomacy Approach in the Middle East Conflicts.” China Report 55 (1): 24–39. doi:10.1177/0009445518818210.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ciorciari, John D., and Jürgen Haacke. 2019. “Hedging in International Relations: An Introduction.” International Relations of the Asia-Pacific 19 (3): 367–374. doi:10.1093/irap/lcz017.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, Ariel. 2019. “China’s Giant $400 Billion Iran Investment Complicates U.S. Options.” Forbes, 19 September. Accessed 27 July 2020. https://www.forbes.com/sites/arielcohen/2019/09/19/chinas-giant-400-billion-iran-investment-snubs-trump/#1ba5e7184d1e
   Google Scholar
• Conduit, Dara, and Shahram Akbarzadeh. 2019. “Great Power-Middle Power Dynamics: The Case of China and Iran.” Journal of Contemporary China 28 (117): 468–481. doi:10.1080/10670564.2018.1542225.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Currier, Carrie Liu, and Manochehr Dorraj. 2009. “In Arms We Trust: The Economic and Strategic Factors Motivating China-Iran Relations.” Journal of Chinese Political Science 15 (1): 49–69. doi:10.1007/s11366-009-9082-6.
   Google Scholar
• Dorsey, James M. 2019. China and the Middle East: Venturing into the Maelstrom. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Ehteshami, Anoushiravan, Niv Horesh, and Xu. Ruike. 2018. “Chinese-Iranian Mutual Strategic Perceptions.” The China Journal 79 (January 2018): 1–20. doi:10.1086/693315.
   Google Scholar
• Esfandiary, Dina, and Ariane Tabatabai. 2018. Triple Axis: Iran’s Relations with Russia and China. London: I.B. Tauris.
   Google Scholar
• Fassihi, Farnaz, and Steven Lee Myers. 2020. “Defying U.S., China and Iran near Trade and Military Partnership.” The New York Times, 11 July. Accessed 31 July 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/11/world/asia/china-iran-trade-military-deal.html
   Google Scholar
• Fei, Andrew. 2017. “China Issues Guidelines on Overseas Investments.” King & Wood Mallesons, 21 August. Accessed 20 May 2020. https://www.kwm.com/en/au/knowledge/insights/china-issues-guidelines-overseas-investments-capital-restricted-prohibited-20170821
   Google Scholar
• Ferdinand, Peter. 2016. “Westward Ho – The China Dream and ‘One Belt, One Road’: Chinese Foreign Policy under Xi Jinping.” International Affairs 92 (4): 941–957. doi:10.1111/1468-2346.12660.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garlick, Jeremy. 2020. The Impact of China’s Belt and Road Initiative: From Asia to Europe. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Garlick, Jeremy, and Radka Havlová. 2020. “China’s ‘Belt and Road’ Economic Diplomacy in the Persian Gulf: Strategic Hedging Amidst Saudi-Iranian Regional Rivalry” Journal of Current Chinese Affairs 1–24. ( online first). doi: 10.1177/1868102619898706.
   Google Scholar
• Garver, John W. 2006. China and Iran: Ancient Partners in a Post-Imperial World. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
   Google Scholar
• Garver, John W. 2013. “China-Iran Relations: Cautious Friendship with America’s Nemesis.” China Report 49 (1): 69–88. doi:10.1177/0009445513479247.
   Google Scholar
• Garver, John W. 2018. “China and the Iran Nuclear Negotiations: Beijing's Mediation Effort.” Chap. 6 In The Red Star and the Crescent: China and the Middle East, edited by James Reardon-Anderson, 123-148. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Guo, L.C., ed. 2017. The Belt & Road: Official Documents. Beijing and Washington: ICP Intercultural Press.
   Google Scholar
• Jakimów, Malgorzata. 2019. “Desecuritisation as a Soft Power Strategy: The Belt and Road Initiative, European Fragmentation and China’s Normative Influence in Central-Eastern Europe.” Asia Europe Journal 17 (4): 369–385. doi:10.1007/s10308-019-00561-3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jin, Liangxiang. 2017. “China’s Role in the Middle East: Current Debates and Future Trends.” China Quarterly of International Strategic Studies 3 (1): 39–55. doi:10.1142/S2377740017500014.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, Lee, and Jinghan Zeng. 2019. “Understanding China’s ‘Belt and Road Initiative’: Beyond ‘Grand Strategy’ to a State Transformation Analysis.” Third World Quarterly 40 (8): 1415–1439. doi:10.1080/01436597.2018.1559046.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kenderdine, Tristan, and Peiyuan Lan. 2018. “China’s Middle East Investment Policy.” Eurasian Geography and Economics 59 (5–6): 557–584. doi:10.1080/15387216.2019.1573516.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keohane, Robert O., and Joseph S. Nye. 1977. Power and Interdependence: World Politics in Transition. Boston: Little, Brown.
   Google Scholar
• Khan, Zahid, and Changgang Guo. 2018. “China´s Energy Driven Initiatives with Iran: Implications for the United States.” Asian Journal of Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies 11 (4): 15–31. doi:10.1080/25765949.2017.12023315.
   Google Scholar
• Kondapalli, Srikanth. 2016. “China and the Iranian Nuclear Issue – Converting Challenges into Opportunities.” Contemporary Review of the Middle East 3 (1): 1–14. doi:10.1177/2347798916633291.
   Google Scholar
• Kong, Bo. 2010. China’s International Petroleum Policy. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.
   Google Scholar
• Lai, Karen P.Y., Shaun Lin, and James D. Sidaway. 2020. “Financing the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI): Research Agendas beyond the ‘Debt-trap’ Discourse.” Eurasian Geography and Economics 61 (2): 109–124. doi:10.1080/15387216.2020.1726787.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, Tianyang. 2019. “Belt & Road Initiative Expands China-Iran Cooperation”, China Daily, 25 January. Accessed 20 May 2020. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201901/25/WS5c4aa81da3106c65c34e6912.html
   Google Scholar
• Liu, Li, and Wang Zesheng. 2017. “Belt and Road Initiative in the Gulf Region: Progress and Challenges.” China International Studies 66: 110–131.
   Google Scholar
• Markey, Daniel S. 2020. China’s Western Horizon: Beijing and the New Geopolitics of Eurasia. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mayer, Maximilian Mayer. 2018. “China’s Rise as Eurasian Power: The Revival of the Silk Road and Its Consequences.” Chapter 1 In Rethinking the Silk Road: China’s Belt and Road Initiative and Emerging Eurasian Relations, edited by Mayer, 1-42. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Ministry of Commerce of the People’s Republic of China. 2017. 2017 Statistical Bulletin of China’s Outward Foreign Direct Investment. Beijing: China Statistics Press.
   Google Scholar
• Moran, Theodore H. 2010. China´s Strategy to Secure Natural Resources: Risks, Dangers, and Opportunities. Washington, D.C.: Peterson Institute for International Economics.
   Google Scholar
• Narins, Thomas P., and John Agnew. 2020. “Missing from the Map: Chinese Exceptionalism, Sovereignty Regimes and the Belt and Road Initiative.” Geopolitics 25 (4): 809–837. doi:10.1080/14650045.2019.1601082.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Bureau of Statistics of China. 2020. China Statistical Yearbook. 2011-2019. Beijing: China Statistics Press. Accessed 8 August 2020. http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/
   Google Scholar
• National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC). 2015. “Vision and Actions on Jointly Building Silk Road Economic Belt and 21st-Century Maritime Silk Road.” 28 March. Issued by the National Development and Reform Commission, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and Ministry of Commerce of the People’s Republic of China, with State Council authorization. Accessed 18 April 2020. http://en.ndrc.gov.cn/newsrelease/201503/t20150330_669367.html
   Google Scholar
• Osiewicz, Przemyslaw. 2018. “The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI): Implications for Iran-China Relations.” Przeglad Strategiczny (Strategic Review) 11 (11): 221–232. doi:10.14746/ps.2018.1.16.
   Google Scholar
• Pape, Robert A. 2005. “Soft Balancing against the United States.” International Security 30 (1): 7–45. doi:10.1162/0162288054894607.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paul, T.V. 2005. “Soft Balancing in the Age of U.S. Primacy.” International Security 30 (1): 46–71. doi:10.1162/0162288054894652.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prasso, Sheridan. 2020. “One of China’s Most Ambitious Projects Becomes a Corridor to Nowhere.” Bloomberg, 2 March. Accessed 15 April 2020. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2020-03-02/a-china-belt-and-road-project-becomes-a-corridor-to-nowhere
   Google Scholar
• Rippa, Alessandro. 2020. “Mapping the Margins of China’s Global Ambitions: Economic Corridors, Silk Roads, and the End of Proximity in the Borderlands.” Eurasian Geography and Economics 61 (1): 55–76. doi:10.1080/15387216.2020.1717363.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salman, Mohammad, and Gustaaf Geeraerts. 2015. “Strategic Hedging and China’s Economic Policy in the Middle East.” China Report 51 (2): 102–120. doi:10.1177/0009445515570440.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scissors, Derek. 2020. “China Global Investment Tracker.” Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute. Accessed 28 April 2020. https://www.aei.org/china-global-investment-tracker/
   Google Scholar
• Scita, Jacopo. 2020. “To Understand the China-Iran Deal, Forget the Hype and Look at the Context.” Responsible Statecraft, 15 July. Accessed 27 July 2020. https://responsiblestatecraft.org/2020/07/15/to-understand-the-china-iran-deal-forget-the-hype-and-look-at-the-context/
   Google Scholar
• Shichor, Yitzhak. 2016. “Iran after the Sanctions: The Marginalization of China.” Note Observatoire Chine no. 13: 1-5. Accessed 13 August 2020. https://centreasia.eu/en/iran-after-the-sanctions-the-marginalization-of-china-2/
   Google Scholar
• Sil, Rudra, and Peter J. Katzenstein. 2010a. “Analytic Eclecticism in the Study of World Politics: Reconfiguring Problems and Mechanisms across Research Traditions.” Perspectives on Politics 8 (2): 411–431. doi:10.1017/S1537592710001179.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sil, Rudra, and Peter J. Katzenstein. 2010b. Beyond Paradigms: Analytic Eclecticism in the Study of World Politics. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Tim, Hillier. 1998. Sourcebook on Public International Law. London: Cavendish Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Tunsjø, Øystein. 2013. Security and Profit in China’s Energy Policy: Hedging against Risk. New York: Columbia University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Waltz, Kenneth. 1979. Theory of International Politics. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
   Google Scholar
• Wight, Colin. 1996. “Incommensurability and Cross-paradigm Communication in International Relations Theory: ‘What’s the Frequency Kenneth?’.” Millennium: Journal of International Studies 25 (2): 291–319. doi:10.1177/03058298960250020401.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Workman, Daniel. 2020. “Top 15 Crude Oil Suppliers to China.” World’s Top Exports, 11 July. Accessed 27 July 2020. http://www.worldstopexports.com/top-15-crude-oil-suppliers-to-china/
   Google Scholar
• World Integrated Trade Solution (WITS). 2019. “China Exports, Imports and Trade Balance by Country and Region 2017.” Accessed 8 August 2020. https://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/en/Country/CHN/Year/2017/TradeFlow/EXPIMP
   Google Scholar
• Wu, Zelin. 2016. “Tanxi Ou Ya liangzhong butongde quyu hezuo moshi.” [ “Exploring Europe’s and Asia’s two different models of regional cooperation”]. Zhongguo Guoqing Guoli [China’s National Conditions] 3 (2016): 69–71. doi10.13561/j.cnki.zggqgl.2016.03.022.
   Google Scholar
• Xi, Jinping. 2014. The Governance of China. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press.
   Google Scholar
• Zhou, Weifeng, and Mario Esteban. 2018. “Beyond Balancing: China’s Approach Towards the Belt and Road Initiative.” Journal of Contemporary China 27 (112): 487–501. doi:10.1080/10670564.2018.1433476.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar