References
- Abel, M. N., Chermak, S. M., & Freilich, J. D. (2022). Pre-attack warning behaviors of twenty adolescent school shooters: A case study analysis. Crime and Delinquency. In press. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128721999338
- Anderson, M., Kaufman, J., Simon, T. R., Barrios, L., Paulozzi, L., & Ryan, G., & School-Associated Violent Deaths Study Group. (2001). School-associated violent deaths in the United States, 1994–1999. Jama, 286(21), 2695–2702. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.286.21.2695
- Arluke, A., & Madfis, E. (2014). Animal abuse as a warning sign of school massacres: A critique and refinement. Homicide Studies, 18(1), 7–22. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/1088767913511459
- Ash, P. (2016). School shootings and mental illness. In L. H. Gold & R. I. Simon (Eds.), Gun violence and mental illness (pp. 105–126). American Psychiatric Association Publishing.
- Bender, W. N., Shubert, T. H., & McLaughlin, P. J. (2001). Invisible kids: Preventing school violence by identifying kids in trouble. Intervention in School and Clinic, 37(2), 105–111. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/105345120103700206
- Blumstein, A., & Wallman, J. (2006). The crime drop and beyond. Annu. Rev. Law Soc. Sci, 2(1), 125–146. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.lawsocsci.2.081805.110011
- Bonanno, C.M. & R.L. Levenson, Jr. (2014). School Shooters: History, Current Theoretical and Empirical Findings, and Strategies for Prevention. Journal of Police Emergency Response 4(1), 1–11.
- Borum, R., Cornell, D. G., Modzeleski, W., & Jimerson, S. R. (2010). What can be done about school shootings? A review of the evidence. Educational Researcher, 39(1), 27–37. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X09357620
- Chermak, S. M., Freilich, J. D., Parkin, W. S., & Lynch, J. P. (2012). American terrorism and extremist crime data sources and selectivity bias: An investigation focusing on homicide events committed by far-right extremists. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 28(1), 191–218. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-011-9156-4
- Cohen, J. (1960). A coefficient of agreement for nominal scales. Educational and Psychological Measurement. 20 (1), 37–46.
- Cornell, D. G. (2006). School Violence: Fears Versus Facts. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
- Devlin, D. N., & Fisher, B. W. An examination of school resource officers as an approach to reduce social disturbances in schools: Evidence from a national longitudinal study. (2021). Journal of School Violence, 20(2), 228–240. Onlne First. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2021.1875843
- Dugan, L., & Distler, M. (2016). Measuring terrorism. In G. LaFree & J. D. Freilich (Eds.), Handbook on the Criminology of Terrorism (pp. 189–205). Hoboken.
- FBI. (2020). 2019 Crime in the United States.
- Fisher, B. W., Higgins, E. M., & Homer, E. M. (2021). School crime and punishment and the implementation of security cameras: Findings from a national longitudinal study. Justice Quarterly, 38(1), 22–46. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2018.1518476
- Frederique, N. (2020). What do data reveal about violence in schools? National Institute of Justice Journal, Onlne: What Do the Data Reveal About Violence in Schools? | National Institute of Justice (ojp.gov), 282. https://nij.ojp.gov/topics/ articles/what-do-data-reveal-about-violence-school.
- Freilich, J. D., Chermak, S. M., Belli, R., Gruenewald, J., & Parkin, W. S. (2014). Introducing the United States Extremist Crime Database (ECDB). Terrorism and Political Violence, 26(2), 372–384. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2012.713229
- Freilich, J. D., Chermak, S. M., & Klein, B. R. (2020). Investigating the applicability of Situational Crime Prevention to the public mass violence context. Criminology and Public Policy, 19(1), 271–293. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12480
- Gammell, S. P., Connell, N. M., & Husky, M. G. (2021). A descriptive analysis of the characteristics of school shootings across five decades. American Journal of Criminal Justice. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-021-09636-7
- Gerard, F. J., Whitfield, K. C., Porter, L. E., & Browne, K. D. (2016). Offender and offence characteristics of school shooting incidents. Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, 13(1), 22–38. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/jip.1439
- Gill, P., J. Silver, J. Horgan & E. Corner. (2017). Shooting Alone: The pre‐attack experiences and behaviors of US solo mass murderers. Journal of forensic sciences, 62(3), 710–714.
- Goughan, E., J.D. Cerio, & R.A. Meyers. (2001). Lethal Violence in Schools: A National Study. Final Report. NY: Alfred University
- Holland, K. M., Hall, J. E., Wang, J., Gaylor, E. M., Johnson, L. L., Shelby, D., & Simon, T. R., with the School Associated Violent Deaths Study Group. (2019, January 25). Characteristics of school-associated youth homicides— United States, 1994–2018. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 68(3): 53–60. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6803a1
- Huff-Corzine, L., McCutcheon, J., Corzine, J., & Landon, M. (2014). Shooting for accuracy: Comparing data sources on mass murder. Homicide Studies, 18(1), 105–124. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/1088767913512205
- Ioannou, M., Hammond, L., & Simpson, O. (2015). A model for differentiating school shooters characteristics. Journal of Criminal Psychology, 5(3), 188–200. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1108/JCP-06-2015-0018
- Kalesan, B., Lagast, K., Villarreal, M., Pino, E., Fagan, J., & Galea, S. (2017). School shootings during 2013–2015 in the USA. Injury Prevention, 23(5), 321–327. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1136/injuryprev-2016-042162
- Katsiyannis, A., Whitford, D. K., & Ennis, R. P. (2018). Historical examination of United States intentional mass school shootings in the 20th and 21st centuries: Implications for students, schools, and society. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27(8), 2562–2573. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1096-2
- Kaufman, J. M., Hall, J. E., & Zagura, M. (2012). Sex, race/ethnicity, and context in school-associated student homicides. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 27(12), 2373–2390. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260511433516
- Kimmel, M. S., & Mahler, M. (2003). Adolescent masculinity, homophobia, and violence: Random school shootings, 1982–2001. American Behavioral Scientist, 46(10), 1439–1458. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764203046010010
- Kupchik, A. (2016). The real school safety problem: The long-term consequences of harsh school punishment. University of California Press.
- LaFree, G. (2011). Using open source data to counter common myths about terrorism. In B. Forst, J. Greene, & J. Lynch (Eds.), Criminologists on terrorism and homeland security (pp. 411–422). Cambridge University Press.
- Langman, P. (2019). Desperate identities: A bio-psycho-social analysis of perpetrators of mass violence. Criminology and Public Policy 19(1), 61–84.
- Livingston, M. D., Rossheim, M. E., & Hall, K. S. (2019). A descriptive analysis of school and school shooter characteristics and the severity of school shootings in the United States, 1999–2018. Journal of Adolescent Health, 64(6), 797–799. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.12.006
- Lynch, J. P. (2018). Not even our own facts: Criminology in the era of big data. Criminology & Public Policy, 56(3), 437–454. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9125.12182.
- Madfis, E. (2017). In search of meaning: Are school rampage shootings random and senseless violence? The Journal of Psychology, 151(1), 21–35. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2016.1196161
- Madfis, E. (2020). How to stop rampage killings: Lessons from averted mass shootings and bombings. Switzerland. Palgrave MacMillon.
- Mayer, M. J., & Furlong, M. J. (2010). How safe are our schools? Educational Researcher, 39(1), 16–26. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X09357617
- McCabe, K. A. &., & Martin, G. M. (2005). School violence, the media, and criminal justice responses. Peter Lang Pub.
- McGee, J. P., & DeBernardo, C. R. (1999). The classroom avenger: A behavioral profile of school based shootings. The Forensic Examiner, 8(5–6), 16–18 https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2001-07603-003.
- McHugh, M. L. (2012). Interrater reliability: The kappa statistic. Biochemia Medica, 22(3), 276–282. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.11613/BM.2012.031
- Meloy, J. R., Hoffmann, J., Roshdi, K., & Guldimann, A. (2014). Some warning behaviors discriminate between school shooters and other students of concern. Journal of Threat Assessment and Management, 1(3), 203. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/tam0000020
- Moore, M. H., Petrie, C. V., Braga, A. A., & McLaughlin, B. L. (2003). Deadly lessons: Understanding lethal school violence. National Academies Press.
- Muschert, G. W. (2007). Research in school shootings. Sociology Compass, 1(1), 60–80. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9020.2007.00008.x
- Newman, K., Fox, C., Harding, D., Mehta, J., & Roth, W. (2004). Rampage: The social roots of school shootings. Basic Books.
- Otero, V. (n.d.). Interactive media bias chart. Ad Fontes Media. https://www.adfontesmedia.com/interactive-media-bias-chart–2/
- Pah, A. R., Hagan, J., Jennings, A. L., Jain, A., Albrecht, K., Hockenberry, A. J., & Amaral, L. A. N. (2017). Economic insecurity and the rise in gun violence at US schools. Nature Human Behaviour, 1(2), 1–6. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-016-0040
- Parkin, W. S., & Gruenewald, J. (2017). Open-source data and the study of homicide. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 32(18), 2693–2723. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515596145
- Rajan, S., & Lane, J. (2018, May/June). School shootings: Making the case for translational criminology. The Criminologist, 43(3), 1–36 https://asc41.com/wp-content/uploads/ASC-Criminologist-2018-05.pdf.
- Riedman, D., & O’Neill, D. (2020). K-12 school shooting database. Naval Postgraduate School, Center for Homeland Defense and Security, Homeland Security Advanced Thinking Program (HSx). www.chds.us/ssdb/
- Rocque, M. & G. Duwe. (2018). Rampage shootings: an historical, empirical, and theoretical overview. Current Opinion in Psychology, 19, 28–33.
- Rocque, M. (2012). Exploring school rampage shootings: Research, theory, and policy. The Social Science Journal, 49(3), 304–313. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2011.11.001
- Sageman, M. (2004). Understanding Terror Networks. University of Pennsylvania Press.
- Schildkraut, J., & Muschert, G. W. (2014). Media salience and the framing of mass murder in schools: A comparison of the columbine and sandy hook massacres. Homicide Studies, 18(1), 23–43. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/1088767913511458
- Shultz, J., Cohen, A., Muschert, G., & Apodaca, R. F. (2013). Fatal school shootings and the epidemiological context of firearm mortality in the United States. Disaster Health, 1(2), 84–101. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.4161/dish.26897
- Sommer, F., Leuschner, V., & Scheithauer, H. (2014). Bullying, romantic rejection, and conflicts with teachers: The crucial role of social dynamics in the development of school shootings–A systematic review. International Journal of Developmental Science, 8(1–2), 3–24. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3233/DEV-140129
- Strøm, I. F., Schultz, J. H., Wentzel-Larsen, T., & Dyb, G. (2016). School performance after experiencing trauma: A longitudinal study of school functioning in survivors of the Utøya shootings in 2011. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 7(1), 31359. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v7.31359
- The Associated Press-NORC. (2019, March). School safety and shootings. https://apnorc.org/projects/school-safety-and-shootings/
- Turanovic, J. J., & Siennick, S. E. (2020). Causes and consequences of school violence. Research report prepared for the National Institute of Justice STOP School Violence Program Assessment: Review of the Causes and Consequences of School Violence. National Institute of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Department of Justice.
- Vossekuil, B., Fein, R. A., Reddy, M., Borum, R., & Modzeleski, W. (2004). The final report and findings of the safe school initiative. US Secret Service and Department of Education.
- Weisbrot, D. M. (2008). Prelude to a school shooting? Assessing threatening behaviors in childhood and adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 47(8), 847–852. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1097/CHI.0b013e3181799fd3
- Wike, T. L., & Fraser, M. W. (2009). School shootings: Making sense of the senseless. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 14(3), 162–169. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2009.01.005
- Wolf, K. C., & Kupchik, A. (2017). School suspensions and adverse experiences in adulthood. Justice Quarterly, 34(3), 407–430. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2016.1168475