Human Occupants in Low-Speed Frontal Sled Tests: Effects of Pre-Impact Bracing on Chest Compression, Reaction Forces, and Subject Acceleration

References

• Arbogast KB, Balasubramanian S, Seacrist T, et al. Comparison of kinematic responses of the head and spine for children and adults in low-speed frontal sled tests. Stapp Car Crash J. 2009;53:329–372.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Armstrong RW, Waters HP, Stapp JP. Human muscular restraint during sled deceleration. Stapp Car Crash J. 1968;12:440–462.
   Google Scholar
• Begeman PC, King AI, Levine RS, Viano DC. Biodynamic Response of the Musculoskeletal System to Impact Acceleration. Warrendale, PA: SAE; 1980. SAE Paper No. 801312.
   Google Scholar
• Beeman SM, Kemper AR, Madigan ML, Duma SM. Effects of bracing on human kinematics in low-speed frontal sled tests. Ann Biomed Eng. 2011;39:2998–3010.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beeman SM, Kemper AR, Madigan ML, Franck CT, Loftus SC. Occupant kinematics in low-speed frontal sled tests: human volunteers, Hybrid III ATD, and PMHS. Accid Anal Prev. 2012;47:128–139.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blincoe L, Seay A, Zaloshnja E, et al. The Economic Impact of Motor Vehicle Crashes, 2000. Washington, DC: US Department of Transportation; 2002. DOT HS 809 446.
   Google Scholar
• Blouin JS, Descarreaux M, Belanger-Gravel A, Simoneau M, Teasdale N. Attenuation of human neck muscle activity following repeated imposed trunk-forward linear acceleration. Exp Brain Res. 2003;150:458–464.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brault JR, Siegmund GP, Wheeler JB. Cervical muscle response during whiplash: evidence of a lengthening muscle contraction. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon). 2000;15:426–435.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brault JR, Wheeler JB, Siegmund GP, Brault EJ. Clinical response of human subjects to rear-end automobile collisions. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1998;79:72–80.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brumbelow ML, Zuby DS. Impact and injury patterns in frontal crashes of vehicles with good ratings for frontal crash protection. 21st Enhanced Safety of Vehicles Conference, Stuttgart, Germany, June 15–18, 2009.
   Google Scholar
• Cheng R, Mital NK, Levine RS, King AI. Biodynamics of the Living Human Spine During −g_x Impact Acceleration. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers; 1979. SAE Paper No. 791027.
   Google Scholar
• Choi HY, Sah SJ, Bumsoo L, et al. Experimental and numerical studies of muscular activations of bracing occupant. 19th Enhanced Safety of Vehicles Conference, Washington, DC, June 6–9, 2005.
   Google Scholar
• Deng B, Melvin JW, Rouhana SW. Head–neck kinematics in dynamic forward flexion. Stapp Car Crash J. 1998;42:179–193.
   Google Scholar
• Duma SM, Kemper AR, Stitzel JD, McNally C, Kennedy EA, Matsuoka F. Rib fracture timing in dynamic belt tests with human cadavers. Clin Anat. 2011;24:327–338.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ejima S, Ono K, Holcombe S, Kaneoka K, Fukushima M. Prediction of the physical motion of the human body based on muscle activity during pre-impact bracing. IRCOBI Conference, Bern, Switzerland, 2008.
   Google Scholar
• Ejima S, Ono K, Holcombe S, Koji K, Fukushima M. A study on occupant kinematics behavior and muscle activities during pre-impact braking based on volunteer tests. IRCOBI Conference, Maastricht, The Netherlands, 2007.
   Google Scholar
• Ejima S, Zama Y, Ono K, Kaneoka K, Shiina I, Asada H. Prediction of pre-impact occupant kinematic behavior based on the muscle activity during frontal collision. 21st Enhanced Safety of Vehicles Conference, Stuttgart, Germany, June 15–18, 2009.
   Google Scholar
• Eppinger R. On the development of a deformation measurement system and its application toward developing mechanically based injury indices. Stapp Car Crash J. 1989;33:21–28.
   Google Scholar
• Ewing CL, Thomas DJ, Lustick L, et al. The effect of the initial position of the head and neck on the dynamic response of the human head and neck to -Gx impact acceleration. In: Proceedings of the 19th Stapp Car Crash Conference. Warrendale, PA: SAE; 1975. SAE Paper No. 751157.
   Google Scholar
• Ewing CL, Thomas DJ, Patrick LM, Beeler GW Jr, Smith MJ. Living human dynamic response to −gx impact acceleration II—accelerations measured on the head and neck. Stapp Car Crash J. 1969;13:400–415.
   Google Scholar
• Forman J, Lessley D, Shaw CG, et al. Thoracic response of belted PMHS, the Hybrid III, and the THOR-NT mid-sized male surrogates in low speed, frontal crashes. Stapp Car Crash J. 2006;50:191–215.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hendler E, O’Rourke J, Schulman M, Katzeff M, Domzalski L, Rodgers S. Effect of head and body position and muscular tensing on response to impact. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers; 1974. SAE Paper No. 741184.
   Google Scholar
• Kallieris D, Rizzetti A, Mattern R, Morgan R, Eppinger R, Keenan L. On the synergism of the driver air bag and the 3-point belt in frontal collisions. Stapp Car Crash J. 1995;39:389–401.
   Google Scholar
• Kemper AR, Kennedy EA, McNally C, Manoogian SJ, Stitzel JD, Duma SM. Reducing chest injuries in automobile collisions: rib fracture timing and implications for thoracic injury criteria. Ann Biomed Eng. 2011;39:2141–2151.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kemper AR, McNally C, Kennedy EA, Manoogian SJ, Duma SM. The influence of arm position on thoracic response in side impacts. Stapp Car Crash J. 2008;52:379–420.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kent RW, Bass CR, Woods WA, Salzar RS, Lee SH, Melvin J. The role of muscle tensing on the force–deflection response of the thorax and a reassessment of frontal impact thoracic biofidelity corridors. Proc Inst Mech Eng D. 2006;220:853–868.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kent RW, Crandall JR, Bolton JR, Duma SM. Comparison and evaluation of contemporary restraint systems in the driver and front-passenger environments. Proc Inst Mech Eng D. 2001;215:1147–1159.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kent RW, Lee SH, Darvish K, et al. Structural and material changes in the aging thorax and their role in crash protection for older occupants. Stapp Car Crash J. 2005;49:231–249.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kimpara H, Iwamoto M, Watanabe I, et al. Effect of assumed stiffness and mass density on the impact response of the human chest using a three-dimensional FE model of the human body. J Biomech Eng. 2006;128:772–776.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klopp GS, Crandall JR, Sieveka EM, Pilkey WD. Simulation of muscle tension in pre-impact bracing. IRCOBI Conference, Brunnen, Switzerland, 1995.
   Google Scholar
• Kumar S, Ferrari R, Narayan Y. Kinematic and electromyographic response to whiplash loading in low-velocity whiplash impacts—a review. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon). 2005;20:343–356.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuppa S, Eppinger RH. Development of an improved thoracic injury criterion. Stapp Car Crash J. 1998;42:139–154.
   Google Scholar
• Kuppa S, Eppinger RH, McKoy F, Nguyen T, Pintar FA, Yoganandan N. Development of side impact thoracic injury criteria and their application to the modified ES-2 dummy with rib extensions (ES-2re). Stapp Car Crash J. 2003;47:189–210.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• L’Abbe RJ, Dainty DA, Newman JA. An experimental analysis of thoracic deflection response to belt loading. IRCOBI Conference, Cologne, West Germany, 1982.
   Google Scholar
• Laituri T, Prasad P, Kachnowski B, Sullivan K, Przybylo P. Prediction of AIS 3+ thoracic risks for belted occupants in full engagements, real world frontal impacts: sensitivity to various theoretical risk curves. SAE World Congress & Exhibition, Detroit, MI, 2003.
   Google Scholar
• Laituri T, Prasad P, Sullivan K, Frankstein M, Thomas R. Derivation and evaluation of a provisional, age dependent AIS 3+ thoracic risk curve for belted adults in frontal impacts, SAE World Congress & Exhibition, Detroit, MI, 2005.
   Google Scholar
• Mertz HJ, Irwin AL, Prasad P. Biomechanical and scaling bases for frontal and side impact injury assessment reference values. Stapp Car Crash J. 2003;47:155–188.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mertz HJ, Patrick LM. Strength and Response of the Human Neck. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers; 1971. SAE Paper No. 710855.
   Google Scholar
• Mertz HJ, Prasad P, Irwin A. Injury risk curves for children and adults in frontal and rear collisions. Stapp Car Crash J. 1997;41:13–30.
   Google Scholar
• Murakami D, Kobayashi S, Torigaki T, Kent R. Finite element analysis of hard and soft tissue contributions to thoracic response: sensitivity analysis of fluctuations in boundary conditions. Stapp Car Crash J. 2006;50:169–189.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Naunheim RS, Bayly PV, Standeven J, Neubauer JS, Lewis LM, Genin GM. Linear and angular head accelerations during heading of a soccer ball. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2003;35:1406–1412.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NHTSA. Traffic Safety Facts 2008: A Compilation of Motor Vehicle Crash Data From the Fatality Analysis Reporting System and the General Estimates System. Washington, DC: US Department of Transportation; 2009. DOT HS 811 170.
   Google Scholar
• Ono K, Kanno M. Influences of the physical parameters on the risk to neck injuries in low impact speed rear-end collisions. Accid Anal Prev. 1996;28:493–499.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patrick LM. Impact force–deflection of the human thorax. Stapp Car Crash J. 1981;25:471–496.
   Google Scholar
• Pintar F, Yoganandan N, Hines M, et al. Chestband analysis of human tolerance to side impact. Stapp Car Crash J. 1997;41:63–74.
   Google Scholar
• Prasad P, Laituri TR, Sullivan K. Estimation of AIS3+ thoracic injury risks of belted drivers in NASS frontal crashes. Proc Inst Mech Eng D. 2004;218:591–609.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruan J, El-Jawahri R, Chai L, Barbat S, Prasad P. Prediction and analysis of human thoracic impact responses and injuries in cadaver impacts using a full human body finite element model. Stapp Car Crash J. 2003;47:299–321.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schneider LW, Robbins D, Pflueg M, Snyder R. Development of Anthropometrically Based Design Specifications for an Advanced Adult Anthropomorphic Dummy Family. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute; 1983.
   Google Scholar
• Shaw JM, Herriott RG, McFadden JD, Donnelly BR, Bolte JH. Oblique and lateral impact response of the PMHS thorax. Stapp Car Crash J. 2006;50:147–167.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Siegmund GP, Blouin JS. Head and neck control varies with perturbation acceleration but not jerk: implications for whiplash injuries. J Physiol. 2009;587(Pt 8):1829–1842.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siegmund GP, Sanderson DJ, Myers BS, Inglis JT. Awareness affects the response of human subjects exposed to a single whiplash-like perturbation. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2003a;28:671–679.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siegmund GP, Sanderson DJ, Myers BS, Inglis JT. Rapid neck muscle adaptation alters the head kinematics of aware and unaware subjects undergoing multiple whiplash-like perturbations. J Biomech. 2003b;36:473–482.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Society of Automotive Engineers. Instrumentation for Impact Test. Warrendale, PA: Author; 1995. SAE J211/1.
   Google Scholar
• Stitzel JD, Barretta JT, Duma SM. Predicting fractures due to blunt impact: a sensitivity analysis of the effects of altering failure strain of human rib cortical bone. Int J Crashworthiness. 2004;9:633–642.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stitzel JD, Cormier JM, Barretta JT, et al. Defining regional variation in the material properties of human rib cortical bone and its effect on fracture prediction. Stapp Car Crash J. 2003;47:243–265.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sugiyama T, Kimpara H, Iwamoto M, Yamada D. Effects of muscle tense on impact responses of lower extremity. IRCOBI Conference, Maastricht, The Netherlands, 2007.
   Google Scholar
• Szabo TJ, Welcher JB. Human subject kinematics and electromyographic activity during low speed rear impacts. Stapp Car Crash J. 1996;40:295–315.
   Google Scholar
• Tencer AF, Kaufman R, Ryan K, et al. Femur fractures in relatively low speed frontal crashes: the possible role of muscle forces. Accid Anal Prev. 2002;34:1–11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thunnissen J, Wismans J, Ewing CL, Thomas DJ. Human Volunteer Head–Neck Response in Frontal Flexion: A New Analysis. Warrendale, PA: SAE; 1995. SAE Paper No. 952721.
   Google Scholar
• Van der Horst MJ, Thunnissen JGM, Happee R, van Haaster RMHP, Wismans JSHM. The Influence of Muscle Activity on Head–Neck Response During Impact. Warrendale, PA: SAE; 1997. SAE Paper No. 973346.
   Google Scholar
• Vital JM, Senegas J. Anatomical bases of the study of the constraint to which the cervical spine is subject in the sagittal plane: a study of the center of gravity of the head. Surg Radiol Anat. 1986;8:169–173.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wismans J, Philippens M, van Oorschot E, Kallieris D, Matten R. Comparison of human volunteer and cadaver head–neck response in frontal flexion. Stapp Car Crash J. 1987;31:1–13.
   Google Scholar
• Yoganandan N, Skradem D, Pintar FA, Reinartz J, Sances A Jr. Thoracic deformation contours in frontal impact. Stapp Car Crash J. 1991;35:47–63.
   Google Scholar