Cervical and thoracic spine injury in pediatric motor vehicle crash passengers

References

• American College of Surgeons. The National Trauma Data Bank, 2002–2014. Chicago, IL: ACS Committee on Trauma; 2015.
   Google Scholar
• Arbogast K, Balasubramanian S, Seacrist T, et al. Comparison of kinematic responses of the head and spine for children and adults in low-speed frontal sled tests. Stapp Car Crash J. 2009;53:329–372.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Arbogast K, Durbin D, Cornejo R, Kallan M, Winston F. An evaluation of the effectiveness of forward facing child restraint systems. Accid Anal Prev. 2004;36:585–589.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arbogast K, Wozniak S, Locey C, Maltese M, Zonfrillo M. Head impact contact points for restrained child occupants. Traffic Inj Prev. 2012;13(2):172–181.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ash J, Abdelilah Y, Crandall J, Parent D, Sherwood C, Kallieris D. Comparison of Anthropomorphic Test Dummies with a Pediatric Cadaver Restrained by a Three-Point Belt in Frontal Sled Tests. In: 21st International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles, Stuttgart, Germany; 2009. Paper No. 09-0362.
   Google Scholar
• Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine. The Abbreviated Injury Scale, 1990 Revision Update 98. Des Plaines, IL: Author; 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Babcock JL. Cervical spine injuries: diagnosis and classification. Arch Surg. 1976;111:646–651.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Barros E, Rodrigues C, Rodrigues N, Oliveira R, Barros T, Rodrigues A Jr. Aging of the elastic and collagen fibers in the human cervical interspinous ligaments. Spine J. 2002;2:57–62.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bilston L, Brown J. Pediatric spinal injury type and severity are age and mechanism dependent. Spine. 2007;32:2339–2347.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown J, Bilston L. Spinal Injuries in Rear Seated Child Occupants Aged 8–16 Years. In: 20th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles, Lyon, France; 2007. Paper No. 07-0461.
   Google Scholar
• Carreon L, Glassman S, Campbell M. Pediatric spine fractures: a review of 137 hospital admissions. J Spinal Disord Tech. 2004;17:477–482.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chang MC. NTDB Annual Report 2016. Chicago, IL: American College of Surgeons; 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Cirak B, Ziegfeld S, Knight V, Chang D, Avellino A, Piadas C. Spinal injuries in children. J Pediatr Surg. 2004;39:607–612.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clarke EC, Appleyard RC, Bilston LE. Immature sheep spines are more flexible than mature spines: an in vitro biomechanical study. Spine. 2007;32:2970–2979.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clayton J, Harris M, Weintraub S, et al. Risk factors for cervical spine injury. Injury. 2012;43:431–435.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Durbin D, Elliott M, Winston F. Belt-positioning boosters and reduction in risk of injury among children in vehicle crashes. JAMA. 2003;289:2835–2840.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fesmire F, Luten R. The pediatric cervical spine: developmental anatomy and clinical aspects. J Emerg Med. 1989;7(2):133–142.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hamilton M, Mylks S. Pediatric spinal injury: review of 174 hospital admissions. J Neurosurg. 1992;77:700–704.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henricksen PC, Grass JK, Buchda K, Maguire N, Neppel J. ICD-9-CM for Hospitals. Volumes 1, 2 and 3 Professional Edition. Chicago, IL: American Medical Association; 2015.
   Google Scholar
• Hill S, Miller C, Kosnik E, Hunt W. Pediatric neck injuries: a clinical study. J Neurosurg. 1984;60:700–706.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kang YS, Stammen J, Moorhouse K, Herriott R, Bolte J. PMHS lower neck load calculation using inverse dynamics with cervical spine kinematics and neck mass properties. Paper presented at: International Research Council on Biomechanics of Injury (IRCOBI); 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Kokoska E, Keller M, Rallo M, Weber T. Characteristics of pediatric cervical spine injuries. J Pediatr Surg. 2001;36:100–105.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leonard JR, Jaffe D, Kuppermann N, Olsen C, Leonard JC. Cervical spine injury patterns in children. Pediatrics. 2014;133:1179–1188.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lopez-Valdes F, Lau S, Riley P, Lamp J, Kent R. The biomechanics of the pediatric and adult human thoracic spine. Ann Adv Automot Med. 2011;55:193–206.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lopez-Valdes F, Seacrist T, Balasubramanian S, et al. Comparing the kinematics of the head and spine between volunteers and PMHS: a methodology to estimate the kinematics of pediatric occupants in a frontal impact. Paper presented at: International Research Council on Biomechanics of Injury (IRCOBI); 2011.
   Google Scholar
• Luck J, Nightingale R, Loyd A, et al. Tensile mechanical properties of the perinatal and pediatric PMHS osteoligamentous cervical spine. Stapp Car Crash J. 2008;52:107–134.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McElhaney J, Nightingale R, Winkelstein B, Chancey V, Myers B. Biomechanical aspects of cervical trauma. In: Nahum A, Melvin J, eds. Accidental Injury: Biomechanics and Prevention. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag; 2002:324–373.
   Google Scholar
• McElhaney J, Snyder R, States J, Gabrielson M. Biomechanical Analysis of Swimming Pool Neck Injuries. 1979. SAE Technical Paper 790137.
   Google Scholar
• Mohseni S, Talving P, Branco B, et al. Effect of age on cervical spine injury in pediatric population: a National Trauma Data Bank review. J Pediatr Surg. 2011;46:1771–1776.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mortazavi M, Gore P, Chang S, Tubbs RS, Theodore N. Pediatric cervical spine injuries: a comprehensive review. Childs Nerv Syst. 2010;27:705–717.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nuckley D, Linders D, Ching R. Developmental biomechanics of the human cervical spine. J Biomech. 2013;46:1147–1154.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patel J, Tepas J III, Molitt D, Pieper P. Pediatric cervical spine injuries: defining the disease. J Pediatr Surg. 2001;36:373–376.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pintar F, Yoganandan N, Maiman D. Lower cervical spine loading in frontal sled tests using inverse dynamics: potential applications for lower neck injury criteria. Stapp Car Crash J. 2010;54:133–166.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Platzer P, Jaindl M, Thalhammer G, et al. Cervical spine injuries in pediatric patients. J Trauma. 2007;62:389–396.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pneumaticos S. Atlanto-occipital dislocations. In: Lasanianos N, Kanakaris N, Giannoudis P, eds. Trauma and Orthopaedic Classifications. London, UK: Springer-Verlag; 2015:189–191.
   Google Scholar
• Polk-Williams A, Carr B, Blinman T, Masiagos P, Wiebe D, Nance M. Cervical spine injury in young children: a National Trauma Data Bank review. J Pediatr Surg. 2008;43:1718–1721.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rasouli M, Rahimi-Movaghar V, Maheronnaghsh R, Yousefian A, Vaccaro A. Preventing motor vehicle crashes related spine injuries in children. World J Pediatr. 2011;7:311–317.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reddy S, Junewick J, Backstrom J. Distribution of spinal fractures in children: does age, mechanism of injury, or gender play a significant role? Pediatr Radiol. 2003;33:776–781.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruge J, Sinson G, McLone D, Cerullo L. Pediatric spinal injury: the very young. J Neurosurg. 1988;68:25–30.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seacrist T, Mathews E, Balasubramanian S, Maltese M, Arbogast K. Evaluation of the Hybrid III and Q-Series pediatric upper neck loads as compared to pediatric volunteers in low-speed frontal crashes. Ann Biomed Eng. 2013;41:2381–2390.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sherwood C, Shaw C, Van Rooij L, et al. Prediction of cervical spine injury risk for the 6-year-old child in frontal crashes. Ann Assoc Adv Automot Med. 2002;46:231–247.
   Google Scholar
• Stammen J, Moorhouse K, Suntay B, Carlson M, Kang YS. The Large Omnidirectional Child (LODC) ATD: biofidelity comparison with the Hybrid III 10-year-old. Stapp Car Crash J. 2016;60:581–623.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stawicki SP, Holmes J, Kallan M, Nance M. Fatal child cervical spine injuries in motor vehicle collisions: analysis using unique linked national datasets. Injury. 2009;40:864–867.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steinmetz M, Lechner R, Anderson J. Atlantooccipital dislocation in children: presentation, diagnosis, and management. Neurosurg Focus. 2003;14(2):1–7.
   Google Scholar
• Van Ee C, Nightingale R, Camacho DL, et al. Tensile properties of the human muscular and ligamentous cervical spine. Stapp Car Crash J. 2000;44:85–102.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vogel L, Chlan K, Zebracki K, Anderson C. Long-term outcomes of adults with pediatric-onset spinal cord injuries as a function of neurological impairment. J Spinal Cord Med. 2011;34:60–66.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu J, Cao L, Reed M, Hu J. A simulation study of spine biofidelity in the Hybrid-III 6-year-old ATD. Traffic Inj Prev. 2013;14:397–404.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zonfrillo M, Locey C, Scarfone S, Arbogast K. Motor vehicle crash–related injury causation scenarios for spinal injuries in restrained children and adolescents. Traffic Inj Prev. 2014;15: S49–S55.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar