References
- Global initiative for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. 2021. https://goldcopd.org
- Hurst JR, Vestbo J, Anzueto A, et al. Susceptibility to exacerbation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med. 2010;363(12):1128–1138.
- Wedzicha J. A, Singh R, Mackay AJ. Acute COPD exacerbations. Clin Chest Med. 2014;35(1):157–163. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccm.2013.11.001
- Beasley V, Joshi PV, Singanayagam A, et al. Lung microbiology and exacerbations in COPD. Int J COPD. 2012;7:555–569.
- Patel IS, Seemungal TAR, Wilks M, et al. Relationship between bacterial colonisation and the frequency, character, and severity of COPD exacerbations. Thorax. 2002;57(9):759–764. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1136/thorax.57.9.759
- Soler N, Ewig S, Torres A, et al. Airway inflammation and bronchial microbial patterns in patients with stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J. 1999;14(5):1015–1022. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1183/09031936.99.14510159
- Marin A, Garcia-Aymerich J, Sauleda J, et al. Effect of bronchial colonisation on airway and systemic inflammation in stable COPD. COPD. 2012;9(2):121–130. DOI:https://doi.org/10.3109/15412555.2011.636407
- Wanner A, Salathé M, O’Riordan TG. Mucociliary clearance in the airways. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1996;154(6 Pt 1):1868–1902. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1164/ajrccm.154.6.8970383
- Knowles MR, Boucher RC. Mucus clearance as a primary innate defense mechanism for mammalian airways. J Clin Invest. 2002;109(5):571–577. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI0215217
- Siddiqi A, Berim I, Nabi H, et al. Association of impaired mucociliary clearance with occurrence of exacerbations in COPD. Proceedings of the International Conference on American Thoracic Society A5350. 2009 May 15–20, San Diego, CA. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1164/ajrccm-conference.2009.179.1_MeetingAbstracts.A5350
- Koblizek V, Tomsova M, Cermakova E, et al. Impairment of nasal mucociliary clearance in former smokers with stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease relates to the presence of a chronic bronchitis phenotype. Rhinology. 2011;49(4):397–406. DOI:https://doi.org/10.4193/Rhino11.051
- Yaghi A, Zaman A, Cox G, et al. Ciliary beating is depressed in nasal cilia from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease subjects. Respir Med. 2012;106(8):1139–1147. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rmed.2012.04.001
- Koblízek V, Dobesová T, Salajka F, et al. [Examination of function and structure of respiratory cilia of adult patients suffering from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)–comparison of nasal and bronchial mucosa (pilot of CILIARY STUDY)]. Vnitr Lek. 2009;55(11):1035–1042.
- Jones PW, Quirk FH, Baveystock CM. The St george’s respiratory questionnaire. Respir Med. 1991;85(Suppl B):25–31. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0954-6111(06)80166-6
- Bestall JC, Paul E. A, Garrod R, et al. Usefulness of the medical research council (MRC) dyspnoea scale as a measure of disability in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax. 1999;54(7):581–586. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1136/thx.54.7.581
- COPD Assessment Test (CAT) [Internet]. [cited 2015 Apr 14]. Available from: http://www.catestonline.org/.
- Crapo RO, Casaburi R, Coates A. L, et al. Guidelines for methacholine and exercise challenge testing-1999. This official statement of the American Thoracic Society was adopted by the ATS board of directors, July 1999. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;161(1):309–329. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1164/ajrccm.161.1.ats11-99
- Rand IA, Du Blaikley J, Booton R, et al. British thoracic society guideline for diagnostic flexible bronchoscopy in adults: accredited by NICE. Thorax. 2013;68(Suppl 1):i1–i44. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1136/thoraxjnl-2013-203618
- Thomas B, Rutman A, O’Callaghan C. Disrupted ciliated epithelium shows slower ciliary beat frequency and increased dyskinesia. Eur Respir J. 2009;34(2):401–404. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00153308
- Thomas B, Rutman A, Hirst RA, et al. Ciliary dysfunction and ultrastructural abnormalities are features of severe asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2010;126(4):722–729.e2. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2010.05.046
- Seybold ZV, Mariassy AT, Stroh D, et al. Mucociliary interaction in vitro: effects of physiological and inflammatory stimuli. J Appl Physiol (1985). 1990;68(4):1421–1426. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1990.68.4.1421
- Agius AM, Smallman LA, Pahor AL. Age, smoking and nasal ciliary beat frequency. Clin Otolaryngol Allied Sci. 1998;23(3):227–230. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2273.1998.00141.x
- Barbato A, Frischer T, Kuehni CE, et al. Primary ciliary dyskinesia: a consensus statement on diagnostic and treatment approaches in children. Eur Respir J. 2009;34(6):1264–1276. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00176608
- Chilvers MA, McKean M, Rutman A, et al. The effects of coronavirus on human nasal ciliated respiratory epithelium. Eur Respir J. 2001;18(6):965–970. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1183/09031936.01.00093001
- Hoffmann RF, Zarrintan S, Brandenburg SM, et al. Prolonged cigarette smoke exposure alters mitochondrial structure and function in airway epithelial cells. Respir Res. 2013;14(1):97. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1186/1465-9921-14-97
- Kaidoglou K, Aivazis V, Alvanou A, et al. Ultrastructural study of bronchial epithelium in chronic respiratory diseases. Histol Histopathol. 1991;6(2):229–233.
- Trevisani L, Sartori S, Bovolenta MR, et al. Structural characterization of the bronchial epithelium of subjects with chronic bronchitis and in asymptomatic smokers. Respiration. 1992;59(3):136–144. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1159/000196044
- Ho JC, Chan KN, Hu WH, et al. The effect of aging on nasal mucociliary clearance, beat frequency, and ultrastructure of respiratory cilia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;163(4):983–988. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1164/ajrccm.163.4.9909121
- Yates GT, Wu TY, Johnson RE, et al. A theoretical and experimental study on tracheal muco-ciliary transport. Biorheology. 1980;17(1-2):151–162. DOI:https://doi.org/10.3233/bir-1980-171-216
- Cantin AM, Hanrahan JW, Bilodeau G, et al. Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator function is suppressed in cigarette smokers. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2006;173(10):1139–1144. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.200508-1330OC
- Dransfield MT, Wilhelm AM, Flanagan B, et al. Acquired cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator dysfunction in the lower airways in COPD. Chest. 2013;144(2):498–506. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1378/chest.13-0274
- Clunes LA, Davies CM, Coakley RD, et al. Cigarette smoke exposure induces CFTR internalization and insolubility, leading to airway surface liquid dehydration. FASEB J. 2012;26(2):533–545. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1096/fj.11-192377
- Kreindler JL, Jackson AD, Kemp PA, et al. Inhibition of chloride secretion in human bronchial epithelial cells by cigarette smoke extract. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2005;288(5):L894–L902. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1152/ajplung.00376.2004
- Iravani J, As van A. Mucus transport in the tracheobronchial tree of normal and bronchitic rats. J Pathol. 1972;106(2):81–93. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1002/path.1711060204
- Tamashiro E, Xiong G, Anselmo-Lima WT, et al. Cigarette smoke exposure impairs respiratory epithelial ciliogenesis. Am J Rhinol Allergy. 2009;23(2):117–122. DOI:https://doi.org/10.2500/ajra.2009.23.3280
- Leopold PL, O’Mahony MJ, Lian XJ, et al. Smoking is associated with shortened airway cilia. PLoS One. 2009;4(12):e8157. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0008157
- Hessel J, Heldrich J, Fuller J, et al. Intraflagellar transport gene expression associated with short cilia in smoking and COPD. PLoS One. 2014;9(1):e85453. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0085453
- Lam HC, Cloonan SM, Bhashyam AR, et al. Histone deacetylase 6-mediated selective autophagy regulates COPD-associated cilia dysfunction. J Clin Invest. 2013;123(12):5212–5230. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI69636
- Cloonan SM, Lam HC, Ryter SW, et al. "Ciliophagy": the consumption of cilia components by autophagy. Autophagy. 2014;10(3):532–534. DOI:https://doi.org/10.4161/auto.27641
- Hiemstra PS, McCray PB, Bals R. The innate immune function of airway epithelial cells in inflammatory lung disease. Eur Respir J. 2015;45(4):1150–1162. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00141514
- Hasani A, Toms N, O’Connor J, et al. Effect of salmeterol xinafoate on lung mucociliary clearance in patients with asthma. Respir Med. 2003;97(6):667–671. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1053/rmed.2003.1498
- Schmid A, Baumlin N, Ivonnet P, et al. Roflumilast partially reverses smoke-induced mucociliary dysfunction. Respir Res. 2015;16(1):135. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1186/s12931-015-0294-3