References
- Acker , J. , Barry , K. and Esseveld , J. 1991 . “ Objectivity and truth: Problems in doing feminist research. ” . In Beyond methodology: Feminist scholarship as lived research , Edited by: Fonow , M. M. and Cook , J. A. 133 – 153 . Bloomington, IN : Indiana University Press .
- Bachrach , P. and Botwinick , A. 1992 . Power and empowerment. A radical theory of participatory democracy. , Philadelphia, PA : Temple University Press .
- Bateson , G. 1972 . Steps to an ecology of mind. A revolutionary approach to man's understanding of himself. , Toronto, , Canada : Chandler Publishing .
- Belenky , M.F. , Clinchy , B. , Goldberger , N.R. and Tarule , J. M. 1986 . Women's ways of knowing: The development of self, voice and mind. , New York, NY : Basic Books .
- Bellah , R. , Madsen , R. , Sullivan , W. , Swidler , A. and Tipton , S. 1996 . Habits of the heart. Individualism and commitment in American life , (2nd ed.) , Berkeley, CA : University of California Press .
- Davis , D. and Jasinski , J. 1993 . Beyond the culture wars: An agenda for research on communication and culture. . Journal of Communication , 43 (3) : 141 – 149 .
- Entman , R. M. 1993 . Framing: Toward clarification of a fractured paradigm. . Journal of Communication , 43 (4) : 51 – 58 .
- Etzioni , A. 1993 . The spirit of community: The reinvention of American society. , New York, NY : Touchstone .
- Fonow , M. M. and Cook , J. A. 1991 . “ Back to the future: A look at the second wave of feminist epistemology and methodology. ” . In Beyond methodology: Feminist scholarship as lived research , Edited by: Fonow , M. M. and Cook , J. A. 1 – 5 . Bloomington, IN : Indiana University Press .
- Fox , J. 1985 . Mission impossible? Social work practice with black urban youth gangs. . Social Work , 30 (1) : 25 – 31 .
- Freire , P. 1973 . Education for critical consciousness. , New York, NY : Continuum Publishing .
- Gandy , O. African Americans and the information age: Life in the pay‐per society. Paper presented at the National Conference on One‐Third of a Nation, African American Perspectives . Nov. 1989 , Washington, DC.
- Gaventa , J. and Lewis , H. 1991 . Participatory education and grassroots development: The case of rural Appalachia. , Gatekeeper Series London, , England : International Institute for Environment and Development .
- Giddens , A. 1984 . The constitution of society: Outline of the theory of structuration. , Berkeley, CA : University of California Press .
- Gitlin , T. 1980 . The whole world is watching, Mass media in the making and unmaking of the new left. , Berkeley, CA : University of California Press .
- Goffman , E. 1959 . The presentation of self in everyday life. , New York, NY : Doubleday .
- Habermas , J. 1984 . The theory of communicative action. Vol. 1, Reason and the rationalization of society. , Vol. 1 , Boston, MA : Beacon Press .
- Hawkins , D. , Catalano , R. and Wells , E. 1986 . Measuring effects of a skills training intervention for drug users. . Journal of Counseling and Clinical Psychology , 54 (5) : 661 – 664 .
- hooks , b. 1989 . Talking back. Thinking feminist, thinking black. , Boston, MA : South End Press .
- Janowitz , M. 1967 . The community press in an urban setting ‐ The social elements of urbanism , (2nd ed.) , Chicago, IL : University of Chicago Press .
- Johnson , G. Empowerment as enhancing personal control. Paper presented at the annual conference of the Speech Communication Association . Atlanta, GA. November .
- Lakin , M. and Costanzo , P. 1979 . “ The experiential group. ” . In Small group communication: A reader , (1st edition) , Edited by: Cathcart , R. and Samovar , L. 163 – 188 . Dubuque, IA : Wm. C. Brown .
- Lather , P. 1991 . Getting smart: Feminist research and pedagogy with/in the postmodern. , New York, NY : Routledge .
- Luttrell , W. 1988 . “ The Edison school struggle: The reshaping of working‐class education and women's consciousness. ” . In Women and the politics of empowerment. , Edited by: Bookman , A. and Morgen , S. Philadelphia, PA : Temple University Press .
- Mehan , H. and Wood , H. 1975 . The reality of ethnomethodology. , New York, NY : Wiley .
- Mies , M. 1991 . “ Women's research or feminist research? The debate surrounding feminist science and methodology. ” . In Beyond methodology: Feminist scholarship as lived research , Edited by: Fonow , M. M. and Cook , J. A. 60 – 84 . Bloomington, IN : Indiana University Press .
- Ruddick , S. 1989 . Maternal thinking: Toward a politics of peace. , Boston, MA : Beacon Press .
- Ryan , C. , Carragee , K. and Schwerner , C. 1998 . Media, movements and the quest for social justice. . Journal of Applied Communication Research , 26 (2) : 165 – 181 .
- Servaes , J. The role and place of the communication ‘facilitator’ in development projects. Paper presented at the annual conference of the International Association for Mass Communication Research . August , Bled, Yugoslavia.
- Simonson , P. 1996 . Dreams of democratic togetherness: Communication hope from Cooley to Katz. . Critical Studies in Mass Communication , 13 (4) : 324 – 342 .
- Spector , M. and Kitsuse , J. 1987 . Constructing social problems. , New York, NY : Aldine .
- Stewart , C. , Smith , C.A. and Denton , R.E. 1989 . Persuasion and social movements , (2nd edition) , Prospect Heights, IL : Waveland Press .
- Whyte , W. F. 1991 . “ Participatory action research: Through practice to science in social research. ” . In Participatory action research , Edited by: Whyte , W. F. 19 – 55 . Newbury Park, CA : Sage .
- Wood , J. 1994 . Who cares? Women, care and culture. , Carbondale, IL : Southern Illinois University Press .
- Zimmerman , M. and Rappaport , J. 1988 . Citizen participation, perceived control and psychological empowerment. . American Journal of Community Psychology , 16 (5)
- Eleanor M. Novek (Ph. D., University of Pennyslvania) is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Communication at Monmouth University, West Long Branch, NJ 07764 ([email protected]). The author would like to thank Monmouth University for a grant‐in‐aid for creativity made in support of this study.