Demystifying mRNA vaccines: an emerging platform at the forefront of cryptic diseases

References

• Plotkin S. History of vaccination. Proc Natl Acad Sci. USA. 2014;111(34):12283–12287.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Griffith F. The significance of pneumococcal types. J Hyg (Lond.). 1928;27(2):113–159.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Szybalska EH, Szybalski W. Genetics of human cell line. IV. DNA-mediated heritable transformation of a biochemical trait. Proc Natl Acad Sci. USA. 1962;48(12):2026–2034.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zinder ND, Lederberg J. Genetic exchange in Salmonella. J Bacteriol. 1952;64(5):679–699.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maruggi G, Zhang C, Li J, et al. mRNA as a transformative technology for vaccine development to control infectious diseases. Mol Ther. 2019;27(4):757–772.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sahin U, Karikó K, Ö T. mRNA-based therapeutics - developing a new class of drugs. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2014;13(10):759–780.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaidyanathan S, Azizian KT, Haque A, et al. Uridine depletion and chemical modification increase Cas9 mRNA activity and reduce immunogenicity without HPLC purification. Mol Ther Nucleic Acids. 2018;12:530–542.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wolff JA, Malone RW, Williams P, et al. Direct gene transfer into mouse muscle in vivo. Science. 1990;247(4949 Pt1):1465–1468.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martinon F, Krishnan S, Lenzen G, et al. Induction of virus-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes in vivo by liposome-entrapped mRNA. Eur J Immunol. 1993;23(7):1719–1722.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Esprit A, de Mey W, Bahadur Shahi R, et al. Neo-antigen mRNA vaccines. Vaccines (Basel). 2020;8(4):776.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stepinski J, Waddell C, Stolarski R, et al. Synthesis and properties of mRNAs containing the novel “anti-reverse” cap analogs 7-methyl(3’-O-methyl)GpppG and 7-methyl (3’-deoxy)GpppG. RNA. 2001;7(10):1486–1495.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benteyn D, Heirman C, Bonehill A, et al. mRNA-based dendritic cell vaccines. Expert Rev Vaccines. 2015;14(2):161–176.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karikó K, Buckstein M, Ni H, et al. Suppression of RNA recognition by toll-like receptors: the impact of nucleoside modification and the evolutionary origin of RNA. Immunity. 2005;23(2):165–175.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim SC, Sekhon SS, Shin W-R, et al. Modifications of mRNA vaccine structural elements for improving mRNA stability and translation efficiency. Mol Cell Toxicol. 2022;18(1):1–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weide B, Pascolo S, Scheel B, et al. Direct injection of protamine-protected mRNA: results of a phase 1/2 vaccination trial in metastatic melanoma patients. J Immunother. 2009;32(5):498–507.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sahin U, Derhovanessian E, Miller M, et al. Personalized RNA mutanome vaccines mobilize poly-specific therapeutic immunity against cancer. Nature. 2017;547(7662):222–226.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thess A, Grund S, Mui BL, et al. Sequence-engineered mRNA without chemical nucleoside modifications enables an effective protein therapy in large animals. Mol Ther. 2015;23(9):1456–1464.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arango D, Sturgill D, Alhusaini N, et al. Acetylation of cytidine in mRNA promotes translation efficiency. Cell. 2018;175(7):1872–1886.e24.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lamb YN. BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 vaccine: first approval. Drugs. 2021;81(4):495–501.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conry RM, LoBuglio AF, Wright M, et al. Characterization of a messenger RNA polynucleotide vaccine vector. Cancer Res. 1995;55(7):1397–1400.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verbeke R, Lentacker I, De Smedt S, et al. Three decades of messenger RNA vaccine development. Nano Today. 2019;28:100766.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sahin U, Oehm P, Derhovanessian E, et al. An RNA vaccine drives immunity in checkpoint-inhibitor-treated melanoma. Nature. 2020;585(7823):107–112.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wadhwa A, Aljabbari A, Lokras A, et al. Opportunities and challenges in the delivery of mRNA-based vaccines. Pharmaceutics. 2020;12(2):102.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reichmuth AM, Oberli MA, Jaklenec A, et al. mRNA vaccine delivery using lipid nanoparticles. Ther Deliv. 2016;7(5):319–334.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu MA. A comparison of plasmid DNA and mRNA as vaccine technologies. Vaccines (Basel). 2019;7(2):37.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iavarone C, O’hagan DT, Yu D, et al. Mechanism of action of mRNA-based vaccines. Expert Rev Vaccines. 2017;16(9):871–881.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pollard C, De Koker S, Saelens X, et al. Challenges and advances towards the rational design of mRNA vaccines. Trends Mol Med. 2013;19(12):705–713.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tan L, Sun X. Recent advances in mRNA vaccine delivery. Nano Res. 2018;11(10):5338–5354.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhong Z, Mc Cafferty S, Combes F, et al. mRNA therapeutics deliver a hopeful message. Nano Today. 2018;23:16–39.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Linares-Fernández S, Lacroix C, Exposito J-Y, et al. Tailoring mRNA vaccine to balance innate/adaptive immune response. Trends Mol Med. 2020;26(3):311–323.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee K, Kim M, Seo Y, et al. Development of mRNA vaccines and their prophylactic and therapeutic applications. Nano Res. 2018;11(10):5173–5192.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pardi N, Hogan MJ, Porter FW, et al. mRNA vaccines - a new era in vaccinology. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2018;17(4):261–279.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schlake T, Thess A, Fotin-Mleczek M, et al. Developing mRNA-vaccine technologies. RNA Biol. 2012;9(11):1319–1330.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaudhary N, Weissman D, Whitehead KA. mRNA vaccines for infectious diseases: principles, delivery and clinical translation. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2021;20(11):817–838.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schott JW, Morgan M, Galla M, et al. Viral and synthetic RNA vector technologies and applications. Mol Ther. 2016;24(9):1513–1527.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kowalski PS, Rudra A, Miao L, et al. Delivering the messenger: advances in technologies for therapeutic mRNA delivery. Mol Ther. 2019;27(4):710–728.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Houseley J, Tollervey D. The many pathways of RNA degradation. Cell. 2009;136(4):763–776.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharova LV, Sharov AA, Nedorezov T, et al. Database for mRNA half-life of 19 977 genes obtained by DNA microarray analysis of pluripotent and differentiating mouse embryonic stem cells. DNA Res. 2009;16(1):45–58.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Beuckelaer A, Grooten J, De Koker S. Type I interferons modulate CD8(+) T cell immunity to mRNA vaccines. Trends Mol Med. 2017;23(3):216–226.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramanathan A, Robb GB, Chan S-H. mRNA capping: biological functions and applications. Nucleic Acids Res. 2016;44(16):7511–7526.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pasquinelli AE, Dahlberg JE, Lund E. Reverse 5’ caps in RNAs made in vitro by phage RNA polymerases. RNA. 1995;1(9):957–967.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sahu I, Haque A, Weidensee B, et al. Recent developments in mRNA-based protein supplementation therapy to target lung diseases. Mol Ther. 2019;27(4):803–823.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mockey M, Gonçalves C, Dupuy FP, et al. mRNA transfection of dendritic cells: synergistic effect of ARCA mRNA capping with poly(A) chains in cis and in trans for a high protein expression level. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2006;340(4):1062–1068.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Furuichi Y, Shatkin AJ. Viral and cellular mRNA capping: past and prospects. Adv Virus Res. 2000;55:135–184.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mauger DM, Cabral BJ, Presnyak V, et al. mRNA structure regulates protein expression through changes in functional half-life. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2019;116(48): 24075–24083
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quabius ES, Krupp G. Synthetic mRNAs for manipulating cellular phenotypes: an overview. N Biotechnol. 2015;32(1):229–235.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gray NK, Wickens M. Control of translation initiation in animals. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol. 1998;14:399–458.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kozak M. At least six nucleotides preceding the AUG initiator codon enhance translation in mammalian cells. J Mol Biol. 1987;196(4):947–950.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pelletier J, Sonenberg N. Insertion mutagenesis to increase secondary structure within the 5’ noncoding region of a eukaryotic mRNA reduces translational efficiency. Cell. 1985;40(3):515–526.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holtkamp S, Kreiter S, Selmi A, et al. Modification of antigen-encoding RNA increases stability, translational efficacy, and T-cell stimulatory capacity of dendritic cells. Blood. 2006;108(13):4009–4017.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karikó K, Kuo A, Barnathan ES. Overexpression of urokinase receptor in mammalian cells following administration of the in vitro transcribed encoding mRNA. Gene Ther. 1999;6(6):1092–1100.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferizi M, Leonhardt C, Meggle C, et al. Stability analysis of chemically modified mRNA using micropattern-based single-cell arrays. Lab Chip. 2015;15(17):3561–3571.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• von Niessen Ag O, Poleganov MA, Rechner C, et al. Improving mRNA-based therapeutic gene delivery by expression-augmenting 3’ UTRs identified by cellular library screening. Mol Ther. 2019;27(4):824–836.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boccaletto P, Machnicka MA, Purta E, et al. MODOMICS: a database of RNA modification pathways. 2017 update. Nucleic Acids Res. 2018;46(D1):D303–D307.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang X, Yang Y, Sun BF, et al. 5-methylcytosine promotes mRNA export - NSUN2 as the methyltransferase and ALYREF as an m(5)C reader. Cell Res. 2017;27(5):606–625.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ge J, Yu YT. RNA pseudouridylation: new insights into an old modification. Trends Biochem Sci. 2013;38(4):210–218.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carlile TM, Martinez NM, Schaening C, et al. mRNA structure determines modification by pseudouridine synthase 1. Nat Chem Biol. 2019;15(10):966–974.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haque A Ashiqul, Weinmann P, Biswas S, Handgretinger R, Mezger M, Kormann M S and Antony J S. (2020). RNA ImmunoGenic Assay: Simple method for detecting immunogenicity of in vitro transcribed mRNA. Adv Cell Gene Ther, 3(2), 10.1002/acg2.79
   Google Scholar
• Karikó K, Muramatsu H, Welsh FA, et al. Incorporation of pseudouridine into mRNA yields superior nonimmunogenic vector with increased translational capacity and biological stability. Mol Ther. 2008;16(11):1833–1840.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duechler M, Leszczyńska G, Sochacka E, et al. Nucleoside modifications in the regulation of gene expression: focus on tRNA. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2016;73(16):3075–3095.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodriguez-Hernandez A, Spears JL, Gaston KW, et al. Structural and mechanistic basis for enhanced translational efficiency by 2-thiouridine at the tRNA anticodon wobble position. J Mol Biol. 2013;425(20):3888–3906.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andries O, Mc Cafferty S, De Smedt SC, et al. N(1)-methylpseudouridine-incorporated mRNA outperforms pseudouridine-incorporated mRNA by providing enhanced protein expression and reduced immunogenicity in mammalian cell lines and mice. J Control Release. 2015;217:337–344.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Svitkin YV, Cheng YM, Chakraborty T, et al. N1-methyl-pseudouridine in mRNA enhances translation through eIF2α-dependent and independent mechanisms by increasing ribosome density. Nucleic Acids Res. 2017;45(10):6023–6036.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang C, Fu J, Zhou Y. A review in research progress concerning m6A methylation and immunoregulation. Front Immunol. 2019;10:922.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer KD, Saletore Y, Zumbo P, et al. Comprehensive analysis of mRNA methylation reveals enrichment in 3’ UTRs and near stop codons. Cell. 2012;149(7):1635–1646.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haque AA, Weinmann P, Biswas S, et al. RNA immunoGenic assay: a method to detect immunogenicity of in vitro transcribed mRNA in human whole blood. Biol Protoc. 2020;10(24):e3850.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gustafsson C, Govindarajan S, Minshull J. Codon bias and heterologous protein expression. Trends Biotechnol. 2004;22(7):346–353.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kudla G, Lipinski L, Caffin F, et al. High guanine and cytosine content increases mRNA levels in mammalian cells. PLoS Biol. 2006;4(6):e180.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karikó K, Muramatsu H, Keller JM, et al. Increased erythropoiesis in mice injected with submicrogram quantities of pseudouridine-containing mRNA encoding erythropoietin. Mol Ther. 2012;20(5):948–953.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu MZ, Asahara H, Tzertzinis G, et al. Synthesis of low immunogenicity RNA with high-temperature in vitro transcription. RNA. 2020;26(3):345–360.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Enuka Y, Lauriola M, Feldman ME, et al. Circular RNAs are long-lived and display only minimal early alterations in response to a growth factor. Nucleic Acids Res. 2016;44(3):1370–1383.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wesselhoeft RA, Kowalski PS, Anderson DG. Engineering circular RNA for potent and stable translation in eukaryotic cells. Nat Commun. 2018;9(1):2629.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wesselhoeft RA, Kowalski PS, Parker-Hale FC, et al. RNA circularization diminishes immunogenicity and can extend translation duration in vivo. Mol Cell. 2019;74(3):508–520.e504.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wroblewska L, Kitada T, Endo K, et al. Mammalian synthetic circuits with RNA binding proteins for RNA-only delivery. Nat Biotechnol. 2015;33(8):839–841.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wagner TE, Becraft JR, Bodner K, et al. Small-molecule-based regulation of RNA-delivered circuits in mammalian cells. Nat Chem Biol. 2018;14(11):1043–1050.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bell CL, Yu D, Smolke CD, et al. Control of alphavirus-based gene expression using engineered riboswitches. Virology. 2015;483:302–311.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weigand JE, Suess B. Tetracycline aptamer-controlled regulation of pre-mRNA splicing in yeast. Nucleic Acids Res. 2007;35(12):4179–4185.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wachsmuth M, Findeiß S, Weissheimer N, et al. De novo design of a synthetic riboswitch that regulates transcription termination. Nucleic Acids Res. 2013;41(4):2541–2551.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mc Cafferty S, De Temmerman J, Kitada T, et al. In vivo validation of a reversible small molecule-based switch for synthetic self-amplifying mRNA regulation. Mol Ther. 2021;29(3):1164–1173.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chahal JS, Khan OF, Cooper CL, et al. Dendrimer-RNA nanoparticles generate protective immunity against lethal Ebola, H1N1 influenza, and Toxoplasma gondii challenges with a single dose. Proc Natl Acad Sci. USA. 2016;113(29): E4133–E4142
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brito LA, Chan M, Shaw CA, et al. A cationic nanoemulsion for the delivery of next-generation RNA vaccines. Mol Ther. 2014;22(12):2118–2129.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blakney AK, Zhu Y, McKay PF, et al. Big is beautiful: enhanced saRNA delivery and immunogenicity by a higher molecular weight, bioreducible, cationic Polymer. ACS Nano. 2020;14(5):5711–5727.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geall AJ, Verma A, Otten GR, et al. Nonviral delivery of self-amplifying RNA vaccines. Proc Natl Acad Sci. USA. 2012;109(36): 14604–14609
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GlaxoSmithKline. A study to evaluate the safety and immunogenicity of GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) biologicals’ experimental rabies vaccine in healthy adults [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2022 Mar 6]. Available from: https://ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT04062669
   Google Scholar
• Arcturus Therapeutics I. A trial evaluating the safety and effects of an RNA vaccine ARCT-021 in healthy adults [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2022 Mar 6]. Available from: https://ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT04668339
   Google Scholar
• Liang SL, Quirk D, Zhou A. RNase L: its biological roles and regulation. IUBMB Life. 2006;58(9):508–514.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blakney AK, McKay PF, Bouton CR, et al. Innate inhibiting proteins enhance expression and immunogenicity of self-amplifying RNA. Mol Ther. 2021;29(3):1174–1185.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim DY, Atasheva S, McAuley AJ, et al. Enhancement of protein expression by alphavirus replicons by designing self-replicating subgenomic RNAs. Proc Natl Acad Sci. USA. 2014;111(29): 10708–10713
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pepini T, Pulichino AM, Carsillo T, et al. Induction of an IFN-mediated antiviral response by a self-amplifying RNA vaccine: implications for vaccine design. J Immunol. 2017;198(10):4012–4024.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miao L, Zhang Y, Huang L. mRNA vaccine for cancer immunotherapy. Mol Cancer. 2021;20(1):41.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu S, Yang K, Li R, et al. mRNA vaccine era - mechanisms, drug platform and clinical prospection. Int J Mol Sci. 2020;21(18):6582.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zeng C, Zhang C, Walker PG, et al. Formulation and delivery technologies for mRNA vaccines. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2020.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kim M, Jeong M, Hur S, et al. Engineered ionizable lipid nanoparticles for targeted delivery of RNA therapeutics into different types of cells in the liver. Sci Adv. 2021;7(9):eabf4398.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qiu M, Glass Z, Chen J, et al. Lipid nanoparticle-mediated codelivery of Cas9 mRNA and single-guide RNA achieves liver-specific in vivo genome editing of Angptl3. Proc Natl Acad Sci. USA. 2021;118(10): e2020401118
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riley RS, Kashyap MV, Billingsley MM, et al. Ionizable lipid nanoparticles for in utero mRNA delivery. Sci Adv. 2021;7(3):eaba1028.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schoenmaker L, Witzigmann D, Kulkarni JA, et al. mRNA-lipid nanoparticle COVID-19 vaccines: structure and stability. Int J Pharm. 2021;601:120586.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang H, You X, Wang X, et al. Delivery of mRNA vaccine with a lipid-like material potentiates antitumor efficacy through toll-like receptor 4 signaling. Proc Natl Acad Sci. USA. 2021;118(6): e2005191118
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang X, Zhao W, Nguyen GN, et al. Functionalized lipid-like nanoparticles for in vivo mRNA delivery and base editing. Sci Adv. 2020;6(34):eabc2315.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Islam MA, Rice J, Reesor E, et al. Adjuvant-pulsed mRNA vaccine nanoparticle for immunoprophylactic and therapeutic tumor suppression in mice. Biomaterials. 2021;266:120431.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davies N, Hovdal D, Edmunds N, et al. Functionalized lipid nanoparticles for subcutaneous administration of mRNA to achieve systemic exposures of a therapeutic protein. Mol Ther Nucleic Acids. 2021;24:369–384.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tavares AJ, Poon W, Zhang YN, et al. Effect of removing Kupffer cells on nanoparticle tumor delivery. Proc Natl Acad Sci. USA. 2017;114(51):E10871–E10880.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsoi KM, MacParland SA, Ma XZ, et al. Mechanism of hard-nanomaterial clearance by the liver. Nat Mater. 2016;15(11):1212–1221.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saunders NRM, Paolini MS, Fenton OS, et al. A nanoprimer to improve the systemic delivery of siRNA and mRNA. Nano Lett. 2020;20(6):4264–4269.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang H, Leal J, Soto MR, et al. Aerosolizable lipid nanoparticles for pulmonary delivery of mRNA through design of experiments. Pharmaceutics. 2020;12(11):1042.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abramson A, Kirtane AR, Shi Y, et al. Oral mRNA delivery using capsule-mediated gastrointestinal tissue injections. Matter. 2022;5(3):975–987.
   Google Scholar
• Carvalho MR, Reis RL, Oliveira JM. Dendrimer nanoparticles for colorectal cancer applications. J Mater Chem B. 2020;8(6):1128–1138.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xiong H, Liu S, Wei T, et al. Theranostic dendrimer-based lipid nanoparticles containing PEGylated BODIPY dyes for tumor imaging and systemic mRNA delivery in vivo. J Control Release. 2020;325:198–205.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischer NO, Rasley A, Corzett M, et al. Colocalized delivery of adjuvant and antigen using nanolipoprotein particles enhances the immune response to recombinant antigens. J Am Chem Soc. 2013;135(6):2044–2047.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischer NO, Weilhammer DR, Dunkle A, et al. Evaluation of nanolipoprotein particles (NLPs) as an in vivo delivery platform. PloS One. 2014;9(3):e93342.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• He W, Evans AC, Rasley A, et al. Cationic HDL mimetics enhance in vivo delivery of self-replicating mRNA. Nanomedicine. 2020;24:102154.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koji K, Yoshinaga N, Mochida Y, et al. Bundling of mRNA strands inside polyion complexes improves mRNA delivery efficiency in vitro and in vivo. Biomaterials. 2020;261:120332.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abbasi S, Uchida S, Toh K, et al. Co-encapsulation of Cas9 mRNA and guide RNA in polyplex micelles enables genome editing in mouse brain. J Control Release. 2021;332:260–268.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khalil AS, Yu X, Umhoefer JM, et al. Single-dose mRNA therapy via biomaterial-mediated sequestration of overexpressed proteins. Sci Adv. 2020;6(27):eaba2422.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jansig E, Geissler S, Rieckmann V, et al. Viromers as carriers for mRNA-mediated expression of therapeutic molecules under inflammatory conditions. Sci Rep. 2020;10(1):15090.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu S, Cheng Q, Wei T, et al. Membrane-destabilizing ionizable phospholipids for organ-selective mRNA delivery and CRISPR–Cas gene editing. Nat Mater. 2021;20(5):701–710.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Segel M, Lash B, Song J, et al. Mammalian retrovirus-like protein PEG10 packages its own mRNA and can be pseudotyped for mRNA delivery. Science. 2021;373(6557):882–889.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin C, Lowery D. mRNA vaccines: intellectual property landscape. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2020;19(9):578.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaviria M, Kilic B. A network analysis of COVID-19 mRNA vaccine patents. Nat Biotechnol. 2021;39(5):546–548.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KnowMade RNA vaccine patent landscape analysis January 2021 [Internet]. [cited 2022 Mar 6]. Available from: https://www.knowmade.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/RNA-Vaccine-Patent-landscape-2021-FLYER.pdf
   Google Scholar
• US Food and Drug Administration. Comirnaty and Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2022 Mar 6]. Available from: https://www.fda.gov/emergency-preparedness-and-response/coronavirus-disease-2019-covid-19/comirnaty-and-pfizer-biontech-covid-19-vaccine
   Google Scholar
• Abu-Raddad LJ, Chemaitelly H, Butt AA. Effectiveness of the BNT162b2 covid-19 vaccine against the B.1.1.7 and B.1.351 variants. N Eng J Med. 2021;385(2):187–189.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baraniuk C. What do we know about China’s covid-19 vaccines? BMJ. 2021;373:n912
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chemaitelly H, Yassine HM, Benslimane FM, et al. mRNA-1273 COVID-19 vaccine effectiveness against the B.1.1.7 and B.1.351 variants and severe COVID-19 disease in Qatar. Nat Med. 2021;27(9):1614–1621.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lopez Bernal J, Andrews N, Gower C, et al. Effectiveness of covid-19 vaccines against the B.1.617.2 (delta) variant. N Eng J Med. 2021;385(7):585–594.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organisation. Background document on mRNA vaccine BNT162b2 (Pfizer-BioNTech) against COVID-19 [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2022 Mar 6]. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/background-document-on-mrna-vaccine-bnt162b2-(pfizer-biontech)-against-covid-19
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organisation. Background document on the mRNA-1273 vaccine (Moderna) against COVID-19 [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2022 Mar 6]. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/background-document-on-the-mrna-1273-vaccine-(moderna)-against-covid-19
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organisation. Background document on the AZD1222 vaccine against COVID-19 developed by Oxford University and AstraZeneca [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2022 Mar 6]. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/background-document-on-the-azd1222-vaccine-against-covid-19-developed-by-oxford-university-and-astrazeneca
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organisation. Background document on the Janssen Ad26.COV2.S (COVID-19) vaccine: background document to the WHO Interim recommendations for use of Ad26.COV2.S (COVID-19) vaccine. [Internet]. 2021. [cited 2022 Mar 6]. Available from. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-2019-nCoV-vaccines-SAGE-recommendation-Ad26.COV2.S-background-2021.1.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organisation. Background document on the inactivated COVID-19 vaccine BIBP developed by China National Biotec Group (‎CNBG). Sinopharm, 7 May 2021 [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2022 Mar 6]. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-2019-nCoV-vaccines-SAGE_recommendation-BIBP-background-2021.1
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organisation. Background document on the inactivated vaccine Sinovac-CoronaVac against COVID-19. [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2022 Mar 6]. Available from. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-2019-nCoV-vaccines-SAGE_recommendation-Sinovac-CoronaVac-background-2021.1.
   Google Scholar
• Rauch S, Jasny E, Schmidt KE, et al. New vaccine technologies to combat outbreak situations. Front Immunol. 2018;9:1963.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao J, Zhao S, Ou J, et al. COVID-19: coronavirus vaccine development updates. Front Immunol. 2020;11:602256.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organisation. COVID-19 vaccine tracker and landscape [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2022 Mar 6]. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/draft-landscape-of-covid-19-candidate-vaccines
   Google Scholar
• Li F. Structure, function, and evolution of coronavirus spike proteins. Annu Rev Virol. 2016;3(1):237–261.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perlman S, Netland J. Coronaviruses post-SARS: update on replication and pathogenesis. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2009;7(6):439–450.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schoof M, Faust B, Saunders RA, et al. An ultrapotent synthetic nanobody neutralizes SARS-CoV-2 by stabilizing inactive spike. Science. 2020;370(6523):1473–1479.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li F. Receptor recognition mechanisms of coronaviruses: a decade of structural studies. J Virol. 2015;89(4):1954–1964.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li F, Li W, Farzan M, et al. Structure of SARS coronavirus spike receptor-binding domain complexed with receptor. Science. 2005;309(5742):1864–1868.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li W, Moore MJ, Vasilieva N, et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 is a functional receptor for the SARS coronavirus. Nature. 2003;426(6965):450–454.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gui M, Song W, Zhou H, et al. Cryo-electron microscopy structures of the SARS-CoV spike glycoprotein reveal a prerequisite conformational state for receptor binding. Cell Res. 2017;27(1):119–129.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yuan Y, Cao D, Zhang Y, et al. Cryo-EM structures of MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV spike glycoproteins reveal the dynamic receptor binding domains. Nat Commun. 2017;8:15092.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belouzard S, Millet JK, Licitra BN, et al. Mechanisms of coronavirus cell entry mediated by the viral spike protein. Viruses. 2012;4(6):1011–1033.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heald-Sargent T, Gallagher TR, Set F. The coronavirus spike protein and acquisition of fusion competence. Viruses. 2012;4(4):557–580.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith TRF, Patel A, Ramos S, et al. Immunogenicity of a DNA vaccine candidate for COVID-19. Nat Commun. 2020;11(1):2601.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Polack FP, Thomas SJ, Kitchin N, et al. Safety and efficacy of the BNT162b2 mRNA covid-19 vaccine. N Eng J Med. 2020;383(27):2603–2615.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walsh EE, Frenck RW, Falsey AR, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of two RNA-based covid-19 vaccine candidates. N Eng J Med. 2020;383(25):2439–2450.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sahin U, Muik A, Vogler I, et al. BNT162b2 vaccine induces neutralizing antibodies and poly-specific T cells in humans. Nature. 2021;595(7868):572–577.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• US Food and Drug Administration. Emergency use authorization for vaccines to prevent COVID-19 [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2022 Mar 6]. Available from: https://www.fda.gov/media/142749/download
   Google Scholar
• Anderson EJ, Rouphael NG, Widge AT, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of SARS-CoV-2 mRNA-1273 vaccine in older adults. N Eng J Med. 2020;383(25):2427–2438.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Widge AT, Rouphael NG, Jackson LA, et al. Durability of responses after SARS-CoV-2 mRNA-1273 vaccination. N Eng J Med. 2020;384(1):80–82.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson LA, Anderson EJ, Rouphael NG, et al. An mRNA vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 - preliminary report. N Eng J Med. 2020;383(20):1920–1931.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baden LR, El Sahly HM, Essink B, et al. Efficacy and safety of the mRNA-1273 SARS-CoV-2 vaccine. N Eng J Med. 2020;384(5):403–416.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall VG, Ferreira VH, Ku T, et al. Randomized trial of a third dose of mRNA-1273 vaccine in transplant recipients. N Eng J Med. 2021;385:1244–1246.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prasad M, Lin JL, Gu Y, et al. No crossreactivity of anti-SARS-CoV-2 spike protein antibodies with syncytin-1. Cell Mol Immunol. 2021;18(11):2566–2568.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shimabukuro TT, Kim SY, Myers TR, et al. Preliminary findings of mRNA Covid-19 vaccine safety in pregnant persons. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(24):2273–2282.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen F, Zhu S, Dai Z, et al. Effects of COVID-19 and mRNA vaccines on human fertility. Hum Reprod. 2021;37(1):5–13.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cavanaugh AM, Spicer KB, Thoroughman D, et al. Reduced risk of reinfection with SARS-CoV-2 after COVID-19 vaccination - kentucky, may-june 2021. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2021;70(32):1081–1083.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for disease control and prevention. interim clinical considerations for use of COVID-19 vaccines currently approved or authorized in the United States [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2022 Mar 6]. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/covid-19/clinical-considerations/covid-19-vaccines-us.html#appendix-d
   Google Scholar
• Olliaro P, Torreele E, Vaillant M. COVID-19 vaccine efficacy and effectiveness-the elephant (not) in the room. Lancet Microbe. 2021;2(7):e279–e280.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Crommelin DJA, Anchordoquy TJ, Volkin DB, et al. Addressing the cold reality of mRNA vaccine stability. J Pharm Sci. 2021;110(3):997–1001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang NN, Li XF, Deng YQ, et al. A thermostable mRNA vaccine against COVID-19. Cell. 2020;182(2):1271–1283.e16.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• BioNTech. BioNTech introduces first modular mRNA manufacturing facility to promote scalable vaccine production in Africa [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2022 Mar 6]. Available from: https://investors.biontech.de/news-releases/news-release-details/biontech-introduces-first-modular-mrna-manufacturing-facility
   Google Scholar
• Yi HG, Kim H, Kwon J, et al. Application of 3D bioprinting in the prevention and the therapy for human diseases. Signal Transduct Target Ther. 2021;6(1):177.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organisation. The mRNA vaccine technology transfer hub [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2022 Mar 6]. Available from: https://www.who.int/initiatives/the-mrna-vaccine-technology-transfer-hub?fbclid=IwAR03_HNtbSnCZEGSlqIkhulRMTTp1O4dbTSLMyXx8R6IwEs6maGCWAmuy50
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organisation. Moving forward on goal to boost local pharmaceutical production, WHO establishes global biomanufacturing training hub in Republic Of Korea [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2022 Mar 6]. Available from: https://www.who.int/news/item/23-02-2022-moving-forward-on-goal-to-boost-local-pharmaceutical-production-who-establishes-global-biomanufacturing-training-hub-in-republic-of-korea
   Google Scholar
• Singh A. Eliciting B cell immunity against infectious diseases using nanovaccines. Nat Nanotechnol. 2021;16(1):16–24.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ripperger TJ, Uhrlaub JL, Watanabe M, et al. Orthogonal SARS-CoV-2 serological assays enable surveillance of low-prevalence communities and reveal durable humoral immunity. Immunity. 2020;53(5):925–933.e4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doria-Rose N, Suthar MS, Makowski M, et al. Antibody persistence through 6 months after the second dose of mRNA-1273 vaccine for Covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(23):2259–2261.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tartof SY, Slezak JM, Fischer H, et al. Effectiveness of mRNA BNT162b2 COVID-19 vaccine up to 6 months in a large integrated health system in the USA: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet. 2021;398(10309):1407–1416.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dan JM, Mateus J, Kato Y, et al. Immunological memory to SARS-CoV-2 assessed for up to 8 months after infection. Science. 2021;371(6529):eabf4063.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yu X, Tsibane T, McGraw PA, et al. Neutralizing antibodies derived from the B cells of 1918 influenza pandemic survivors. Nature. 2008;455(7212):532–536.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Le Bert N, Tan AT, Kunasegaran K, et al. SARS-CoV-2-specific T cell immunity in cases of COVID-19 and SARS, and uninfected controls. Nature. 2020;584(7821):457–462.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schumacher TN, Schreiber RD. Neoantigens in cancer immunotherapy. Science. 2015;348(6230):69–74.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coulie PG, Van den Eynde BJ, van der Bruggen P, et al. Tumour antigens recognized by T lymphocytes: at the core of cancer immunotherapy. Nat Rev Cancer. 2014;14(2):135–146.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heesen L, Frenzel K, Bolte S, et al. Abstract CT221: mutanome engineered RNA immuno-therapy (MERIT) for patients with triple negative breast cancer (TNBC). Cancer Res. 2019;79(13):CT221.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• I M, Sharp M, Corp D. An efficacy study of adjuvant treatment with the personalized cancer vaccine mRNA-4157 and pembrolizumab in participants with high-risk melanoma (keynote-942) [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2022 Mar 6]. Available from: https://ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT03897881
   Google Scholar
• Genentech I, B SE. A study of Autogene cevumeran (RO7198457) as a single agent and in combination with atezolizumab in participants with locally advanced or metastatic tumors [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2022 Mar 6]. Available from: https://ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT03289962
   Google Scholar
• Genentech I, B SE. A study to evaluate the efficacy and safety of RO7198457 in combination with pembrolizumab versus pembrolizumab alone in participants with previously untreated advanced melanoma [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2022 Mar 6]. Available from: https://ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT03815058
   Google Scholar
• Florida U, Ppn-o C, University of California SF, CureSearch. A study of RNA-lipid particle (RNA-LP) vaccines for newly diagnosed pediatric high-grade gliomas (pHGG) and adult glioblastoma (GBM) [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2022 Mar 6]. Available from: https://ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT04573140
   Google Scholar
• Sharp M, Corp D. A study of mRNA-5671/V941 as monotherapy and in combination with pembrolizumab (V941-001) [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2022 Mar 6]. Available from: https://ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT03948763
   Google Scholar
• Roche H-L. A study of the efficacy and safety of RO7198457 in combination with atezolizumab versus atezolizumab alone following adjuvant platinum-doublet chemotherapy in participants who are ctDNA positive after surgical resection of stage II-III non-small cell lung cancer [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2022 Mar 6]. Available from: https://ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT04267237
   Google Scholar
• SE B. A phase II clinical trial comparing the efficacy of RO7198457 versus watchful waiting in patients with ctDNA-positive, resected stage II (high risk) and stage III colorectal cancer [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2022 Mar 6]. Available from: https://ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT04486378
   Google Scholar
• Center MSKC, Genentech I. Study of personalized tumor vaccines (PCVs) and a PD-L1 blocker in patients with pancreatic cancer that can be treated with surgery [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2022 Mar 6]. Available from: https://ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT04161755
   Google Scholar
• SE B. Evaluation of the safety and tolerability of i.v. administration of a cancer vaccine in patients with advanced melanoma [Internet]. 2015 [cited 2022 Mar 6]. Available from: https://ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT02410733
   Google Scholar
• SE B, Pharmaceuticals R. Trial with BNT111 and cemiplimab in combination or as single agents in patients with anti-PD-1-refractory/relapsed, unresectable stage III or IV melanoma [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2022 Mar 6]. Available from: https://ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT04526899
   Google Scholar
• Cinca DG, Sunyer I-IdIBAPi, Coordinator FG-I, Barcelona HCo. Evaluating a combination of immune-based therapies to achieve a remission of HIV infection [Internet]. 2020 [cited 2022 Mar 6]. Available from: https://ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT03619278
   Google Scholar
• Guardo AC, Joe PT, Miralles L, et al. Preclinical evaluation of an mRNA HIV vaccine combining rationally selected antigenic sequences and adjuvant signals (HTI-TriMix). AIDS. 2017;31(3):321–332.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jong W, Leal L, Buyze J, et al. Therapeutic vaccine in chronically HIV-1-infected patients: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase IIa trial with HTI-TriMix. Vaccines (Basel). 2019;7(4):209.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feldman RA, Fuhr R, Smolenov I, et al. mRNA vaccines against H10N8 and H7N9 influenza viruses of pandemic potential are immunogenic and well tolerated in healthy adults in phase 1 randomized clinical trials. Vaccine. 2019;37(25):3326–3334.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kallen K-J, Heidenreich R, Schnee M, et al. A novel, disruptive vaccination technology: self-adjuvanted RNActive(®) vaccines. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2013;9(10):2263–2276.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petsch B, Schnee M, Vogel AB, et al. Protective efficacy of in vitro synthesized, specific mRNA vaccines against influenza A virus infection. Nat Biotechnol. 2012;30(12):1210–1216.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wongsaroj P, Udomchaisakul P, Tepsumethanon S, et al. Rabies neutralizing antibody after 2 intradermal doses on days 0 and 21 for pre-exposure prophylaxis. Vaccine. 2013;31(13):1748–1751.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alberer M, Gnad-Vogt U, Hong HS, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of a mRNA rabies vaccine in healthy adults: an open-label, non-randomised, prospective, first-in-human phase 1 clinical trial. Lancet. 2017;390(10101):1511–1520.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lutz J, Lazzaro S, Habbeddine M, et al. Unmodified mRNA in LNPs constitutes a competitive technology for prophylactic vaccines. NPJ Vaccines. 2017;2:29.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aldrich C, Leroux-Roels I, Huang KB, et al. Proof-of-concept of a low-dose unmodified mRNA-based rabies vaccine formulated with lipid nanoparticles in human volunteers: a phase 1 trial. Vaccine. 2021;39(8):1310–1318.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pardi N, Hogan MJ, Pelc RS, et al. Zika virus protection by a single low-dose nucleoside-modified mRNA vaccination. Nature. 2017;543(7644):248–251.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jagger BW, Dowd KA, Chen RE, et al. Protective efficacy of nucleic acid vaccines against transmission of Zika virus during pregnancy in mice. J Infect Dis. 2019;220(10):1577–1588.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richner JM, Jagger BW, Shan C, et al. Vaccine mediated protection against Zika virus-induced congenital disease. Cell. 2017;170(2):273–283.e12.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• I M, Research BA, Authority D. Safety, tolerability, and immunogenicity of mRNA-1325 in healthy adult subjects [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2022 Mar 6]. Available from: https://ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT03014089
   Google Scholar
• I M, Research BA, Authority D. Safety, tolerability, and immunogenicity of Zika vaccine mRNA-1893 in healthy flavivirus seropositive and seronegative adults [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2022 Mar 6]. Available from: https://ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT04064905
   Google Scholar
• Falsey AR, Hennessey PA, Formica MA, et al. Respiratory syncytial virus infection in elderly and high-risk adults. N Engl J Med. 2005;352(17):1749–1759.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shi T, McAllister DA, O’Brien KL, et al. Global, regional, and national disease burden estimates of acute lower respiratory infections due to respiratory syncytial virus in young children in 2015: a systematic review and modelling study. Lancet. 2017;390(10098):946–958.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim HW, Canchola JG, Brandt CD, et al. Respiratory syncytial virus disease in infants despite prior administration of antigenic inactivated vaccine. Am J Epidemiol. 1969;89(4):422–434.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mazur NI, Higgins D, Nunes MC, et al. The respiratory syncytial virus vaccine landscape: lessons from the graveyard and promising candidates. Lancet Infect Dis. 2018;18(10):e295–e311.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crank MC, Ruckwardt TJ, Chen M, et al. A proof of concept for structure-based vaccine design targeting RSV in humans. Science. 2019;365(6452):505–509.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLellan JS, Chen M, Leung S, et al. Structure of RSV fusion glycoprotein trimer bound to a prefusion-specific neutralizing antibody. Science. 2013;340(6136):1113–1117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLellan JS, Chen M, Joyce MG, et al. Structure-based design of a fusion glycoprotein vaccine for respiratory syncytial virus. Science. 2013;342(6158):592–598.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krarup A, Truan D, Furmanova-Hollenstein P, et al. A highly stable prefusion RSV F vaccine derived from structural analysis of the fusion mechanism. Nat Commun. 2015;6:8143.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Espeseth AS, Cejas PJ, Citron MP, et al. Modified mRNA/lipid nanoparticle-based vaccines expressing respiratory syncytial virus F protein variants are immunogenic and protective in rodent models of RSV infection. NPJ Vaccines. 2020;5(1):16.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aliprantis AO, Shaw CA, Griffin P, et al. A phase 1, randomized, placebo-controlled study to evaluate the safety and immunogenicity of an mRNA-based RSV prefusion F protein vaccine in healthy younger and older adults. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2021;17(5):1248–1261.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaudhary N, Weissman D, Whitehead KA. mRNA vaccines for infectious diseases: principles, delivery and clinical translation. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2021;20(11):817–838.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baeza Garcia A, Siu E, Sun T, et al. Neutralization of the Plasmodium-encoded MIF ortholog confers protective immunity against malaria infection. Nat Commun. 2018;9(1):2714.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Raj DK, Das Mohapatra A, Jnawali A, et al. Anti-PfGARP activates programmed cell death of parasites and reduces severe malaria. Nature. 2020;582(7810):104–108.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kurokawa C, Narasimhan S, Vidyarthi A, et al. Repeat tick exposure elicits distinct immune responses in Guinea pigs and mice. Ticks Tick Borne Dis. 2020;11(6):101529.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sajid A, Matias J, Arora G, et al. mRNA vaccination induces tick resistance and prevents transmission of the lyme disease agent. Sci Transl Med. 2021;13(620):eabj9827.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wallin MT, Culpepper WJ, Nichols E, et al. Global, regional, and national burden of multiple sclerosis 1990-2016: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2016. Lancet Neurol. 2019;18(3):269–285.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krienke C, Kolb L, Diken E, et al. A noninflammatory mRNA vaccine for treatment of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Science. 2021;371(6525):145–153.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gertz MA, Benson MD, Dyck PJ, et al. Diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy of transthyretin amyloidosis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2015;66(21):2451–2466.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gillmore JD, Gane E, Taubel J, et al. CRISPR-Cas9 in vivo gene editing for transthyretin amyloidosis. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(6):493–502.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss R, Scheiblhofer S, Thalhamer J. Allergens are not pathogens: why immunization against allergy differs from vaccination against infectious diseases. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2014;10(3):703–707.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss R, Scheiblhofer S, Roesler E, et al. Prophylactic mRNA vaccination against allergy. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol. 2010;10(6):567–574.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roesler E, Weiss R, Weinberger EE, et al. Immunize and disappear-safety-optimized mRNA vaccination with a panel of 29 allergens. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2009;124(5):1070–1077.e1-11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hattinger E, Scheiblhofer S, Roesler E, et al. Prophylactic mRNA vaccination against allergy confers long-term memory responses and persistent protection in mice. J Immunol Res. 2015;2015:797421.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xie W, Chen B, Wong J. Publisher correction: evolution of the market for mRNA technology. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2021;20(11):880.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mikulic M. Global funding on mRNA therapeutics and vaccines from 2015 to 2020 [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2022 Mar 6]. Available from: https://www.statista.com/statistics/1274559/funding-in-mrna-therapeutics-and-vaccines-worldwide/#statisticContainer
   Google Scholar
• Cross R. This was mRNA’s breakout year, and scientists are just getting started. Chemical & Engineering News [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2022 Mar 6]. Available from: https://cen.acs.org/pharmaceuticals/Another-year-pharma/99/i44#This-was-mRNAs-breakout-year-and-scientists-are-just-getting-started
   Google Scholar
• Sanofi. Sanofi to acquire translate bio; advances deployment of mRNA technology across vaccines and therapeutics development. Internet]. 2021 [cited 2022 Mar 6]. Available from. https://www.sanofi.com/en/media-room/press-releases/2021/2021-08-03-07-00-00-2273307.
   Google Scholar
• Sanofi. Sanofi launches dedicated vaccines mRNA center of excellence. Internet]. 2021 [cited 2022 Mar 6]. Available from. https://www.sanofi.com/en/media-room/press-releases/2021/2021-06-29-10-00-40-2254458#.
   Google Scholar
• Novartis. Novartis signs initial agreement with CureVac to manufacture COVID-19 vaccine candidate [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2022 Mar 6]. Available from: https://www.novartis.com/news/media-releases/novartis-signs-initial-agreement-curevac-manufacture-covid-19-vaccine-candidate
   Google Scholar
• GlaxoSmithKline. GSK and CureVac to develop next generation mRNA COVID-19 vaccines [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2022 Mar 6]. Available from: https://www.gsk.com/en-gb/media/press-releases/gsk-and-curevac-to-develop-next-generation-mrna-covid-19-vaccines/
   Google Scholar