β-Glucans, History, and the Present: Immunomodulatory Aspects and Mechanisms of Action

REFERENCES

• Adachi Y., Ohno N., Ohsawa M., Sato K., Oikawa S., Yadomae T. Physiochemical properties and antitumor activities of chemically modified derivatives of antitumor glucan “grifolan LE” from Grifola frondosa. Chem. Pharm. Bull. (Tokyo) 1989; 37: 1837–1843
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Al Tuwaiji A. S., Mahmoud A. A., Al Mofleh I. A., Al Khuwaitir S. A. Effect of glucan on Leishmania major infection in BALB/c mice. J. Med. Microbiol. 1987; 23: 363–365
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alwis K. U., Mandryk J., Hocking A. D. Exposure to biohazards in wood dust: Bacteria, fungi, endotoxins, and (1 → 3)-β -D-glucans. Appl. Occup. Environ. Hyg. 1999; 14: 598–608
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Aoyagi K., Itoh N., Abe F., Uchida K., Ishizuka M., Takeuchi T., Yamaguchi H. Enhancement by ubenimex (Betastatin) of host resistance to Candida albicans infections. J. Antibiot. 1992; 45: 1778–1784
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bacon J. S. D., Farmer V. S. The presence of predominantly β -(1-6)-component in preparations of yeast glucan. Biochem. J. 1968; 110: 34–35P
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Battilana P., Ornstein K., Minehira K., Schwarz J. M., Acheson K., Schneiter P., Burri J., Jequier E., Tappy L. Mechanisms of action of beta-glucan in postprandial glucose metabolism in healthy men. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2001; 55: 327–333
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bell D. J., Northcote D. H. The structure of a cell-wall polysaccharide of baker's yeast. Part II. J. Chem. Soc. 1950; 47: 1944–1947
   Google Scholar
• Beijer L., Thorn J., Rylander R. Effects after inhalation of (1 → 3)-β -D-glucan and relation to mould exposure in the home. Mediators Inflam. 2002; 11: 149–153
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bilak H., Tauszig-Delamasure S., Imler J. L. Toll and Toll-like receptors in Drosophila. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 2003; 31: 648–651
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Billar T. R. Nitric oxide, novel biology and clinical relevance. Ann. Surg. 1995; 221: 339–349
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Billroth T. Beobachtung-Studien uber Wundfieber und accidentelle Wundkrankheiter. Arch. Klin. Chir. 1865; 6: 372–399
   Google Scholar
• Black W. A. P., Cornhill W. J., Dewar E. T., Woodward F. N. Manufacture of algal chemicals. III. Laboratory scale isolation of laminarin from brown marine algae. J. Appl. Chem. 1951; 1: 505–507
   Google Scholar
• Bobek P., Ozdin L., Kuniak L. Effect of oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) and its ethanolic extract in diet on absorption and turnover of cholesterol in hypercholesterolemic rat. Nahrung 1996; 40: 222–224
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Borchers A. T., Stern J. S., Hackman R. M., Keen C. L., Gershwin M. E. Mushrooms, tumors, and immunity. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 1999; 221: 281–293
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bousquet M., Escoula L., Pipy B., Bessieres M. H., Chavant L., Seguela J. P. Two β -1-3, β -1-6 polysaccharides (PSAT and Scleroglucan) enhance the resistance of mice to Toxoplasma gondii. Ann. Parasitol. Hum. Comp. 1988; 63: 398–409
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brown J. L., Kossaczka Z., Jiang B., Bussey H. A mutational analysis of killer toxin resistance in Saccharomyces cerevisiae identifies new genes involved in cell wall (1 → 6)-β -glucan synthesis. Genetics 1993; 133: 837–849
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown G. D., Gordon S. Fungal β -glucans and mammalian immunity. Immunity 2003; 19: 311–315
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown G. D. Dectin-1: A signaling non-TLR pattern-recognition receptor. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2006; 6: 33–44
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Busch W. VII. Verhandlungen artzlicher gesellschaften. Berl. Klin. Wochenschr. 1850; 5: 137–138
   Google Scholar
• Chihara G., Maeda Y. Y., Hamuro J., Sasaki T., Fukuoka F. Inhibition of mouse sarcoma 180 by polysaccharides from Lentinus edodes (Berk.) sing. Nature 1969; 222: 687–688
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chihara G., Maeda Y. Y., Hamuro J. Current status and perspectives of immunomodulators of microbial origin. Int. J. Tissue React. 1982; IV: 207–225
   Google Scholar
• Coley W. B. Treatment of inoperable malignant tumors with the toxins of erysipelas and the Bacillus prodigiosus. Am. J. Med. Sci. 1894; 108: 50–66
   Google Scholar
• Cook J. A., Holbrook T. W. Immunogenicity of soluble and particulate antigens from Leishmania donovani: Effect of glucan as an adjuvant. Infect. Immun. 1984; 40: 1038–1043
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chuah C. T., Sarko Y., Deslandes Y., Marchessault R. H. Triple helical crystalline structure of curdlan and paramylon hydrates. Macromolecules 1983; 16: 1375–1382
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Descroix K., Ferrieres V., Jamois F., Yvin J. C., Plusquellec D. Recent progress in the field of β -(1,3)-glucans and new applications. Mini-Rev. Med. Chem. 2006; 6: 1341–1349
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DiLuzio N. R., Riggi S. J. The effects of laminarin, sulfated glucan and oligosaccharides of glucan on reticuloendothelial activity. J. Reticuloendothel. Soc. 1970; 8: 465–473
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dongowski G., Huth M., Gebhardt E., Flamme W. Dietary fiber-rich barley products beneficially affect the intestinal tract of rats. J. Nutr. 2002; 132: 3704–3714
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dritz S. S., Shi J., Klelian T. L., Goodband R. D., Nelssen J. L., Tokach M. D., Chengappa M. M., Smith J. E., Blecha F. Influence of dietary β -glucan on growth performance, non-specific immunity, and resistance to Streptococcus suis infection in weanling pigs. J. Anim. Sci. 1995; 73: 3341–3350
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ebina T., Fujimiya Y. Antitumor effect of a peptide-glucan preparation extracted from Agaricus blazei in a double-grafted tumor system in mice. Biotherapy 1998; 11: 259–265
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fukushima M., Ohashi T., Fujiwara Y., Sonoyama K., Nakano M. Cholesterol-lowering effects of maitake (Grifola frondosa) fiber, shiitake (Lentinus edodes) fiber, and enokitake (Flammulina velutipes) fiber in rats. Exp. Biol. Med. 2001; 226: 758–765
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fukushima M., Nakano M., Morii Y. T., Ohashi T., Fujiwara Y., Sonoyama K. Cholesterol-lowering effects of maitake (Grifola frondosa) fiber, shiitake (Lentinus edodes) fiber, and enokitake (Flammulina velutipes) fiber in rats. J. Nutr. 2000; 130: 2151–2156
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Granger D. L., Hibbs J. B., Perfect J. A. Specific amino acid (L-arginine) requirement for the microbiostatic activity of murine macrophages. J. Clin. Invest. 1988; 81: 1096–1102
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Structure and Biosynthesis of Fungal α -Glucans, C. H. Grün. Proef. Univer., Utrechtthe Netherlands 2001
   Google Scholar
• Haga S., Akai K., Ishii T. Demonstration of microglial cells in and around senile (neuritic) plaques in the Alzheimer brain. An immunohistochemical study using a novel monoclonal antibody. Acta Neuropathol. 1989; 77: 569–575
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harada T., Misaki A., Saitô H. Curdlan: A bacterial gel-forming β -1,3-glucan. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 1968; 124: 292–298
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hibbs J. B., Taintor R. R., Vavrin Z. Iron depletion: Possible cause of tumor cell cytotoxicity induced by activated macrophages. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1984; 123: 716–723
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hong F., Yan J., Baran J. T., Allendorf D. J., Hansen R. D., Ostroff G. R., Xing P. X., Cheung N. K., Ross G. D. Mechanism by which orally administered β -1,3-glucans enhance the tumoricidal activity of anti-tumor monoclonal antibodies in murine tumor models. J. Immunol. 2004; 173: 797–806
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hotta H., Hagiwara K., Tabata K., Ito W., Homma M. Augmentation of protective immune responses against Sendai virus infection by fungal polysaccharide schizophyllan. Int. J. Immunopharmacol. 1993; 5: 55–60
   Google Scholar
• Jamas S., Easson D. D., Ostroff G. R., Onderdonk A. B. A novel class of macrophage activity immunomodulators. ACS Symp. Ser. 1991; 1469: 44–51
   Google Scholar
• James S., Claven J. Macrophage cytotoxicity against schistosomula of Schistosoma mansoni involves arginine-dependent production of reactive nitrogen intermediates. J. Immunol. 1989; 143: 4208–4212
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jamois F., Ferriéres V., Guégan J. P., Yvin J. C., Plusquellec D., Vìtvièka V. Glucan-like synthetic oligosaccharides. Iterative synthesis of linear oligo-β -(1,3)-glucans and immunostimulatory effects. Glycobiology 2005; 15: 393–407
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Structural Concepts in Immunology and Immunochemistry, E. A. Kabat. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York 1976
   Google Scholar
• Kaibara N., Soejima K., Nakamura T., Inokuchi K. Postoperative long-term chemotherapy for advanced gastric cancer. Jpn. J. Surg. 1976; 6: 54–59
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kimura Y., Tojima H., Fukase S., Takeda K. Clinical evaluation of sizofilan as assistant immunotherapy in treatment of head and neck cancer. Acta Otolaryngol. (Stockh.) Suppl. 1994; 511: 192–195
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kojima T., Tabata K., Itoh W., Yanaki T. Molecular weight dependence of the antitumor activity of Schizophyllan. Agr. Biol. Chem. 1986; 50: 231–232
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kraus J., Franz G. Immunomodulating effects of polysaccharides from medicinal plants. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 1992; 319: 299–308
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kubo K., Nanba H. The effect of maitake mushrooms on liver and serum lipids. Altern. Ther. Health Med. 1996; 2: 62–66
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kumar P., Ahmad S. Glucan-induced immunity in mice against Plasmodium bergei. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol. 1985; 79: 211–213
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kurashige S., Akuzawa Y., Endo F. Effects of Lentinus edodes Grifola frondosa Pleurotus ostreatus administration on cancer outbreak, and activities of macrophages and lymphocytes in mice treated with a carcinogen, N-butyl-N-butanolnitrosoamine. Immunopharmacol. Immunotoxicol. 1997; 19: 175–183
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lemaitre B., Nicolas E., Michaut L., Reichhart J. M., Hoffmann J. A. The dorsoventral regulatory gene cassette spatzle/Toll/cactus controls the potent antifungal response in Drosophila adults. Cell 1996; 86: 973–983
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liang J., Melican D., Cafro L., Palace G., Fisette L., Armstrong R., Patchen M. L. Enhanced clearance of a multiple antibiotic resistant Staphylococcus aureus in rats treated with PGG-glucan is associated with increased leukocyte counts and increased neutrophils oxidative burst activity. Int. J. Immunopharmacol. 1998; 20: 595–614
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manners D. J., Masson A. J., Patterson J. C., Bjorndal H., Lindberg B. The structure of a β -(1-6)-D-glucan from yeast cell walls. Biochem. J. 1973; 135: 19–36
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manners D. J., Patterson J. C. A re-examination of the molecular structure of yeast glucan. Biochem. J. 1966; 105: 19C–20C
   Google Scholar
• Matsuoka H., Seo Y., Wakasugi H., Saito T., Tomoda H. Lentinan potentiates immunity and prolongs survival time of some patients. Anticancer Res. 1997; 17: 2751–2755
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miura T., Miura N. N., Ohno N., Adachi Y., Shimada S., Yadomae T. Failure in anti-tumor activity by overdose of an immunomodulating β -glucan preparation, sonifilan. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 2000; 23: 249–253
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miura N. N., Ohno N., Adachi Y., Aketagawa J., Tamura H., Tanaka S., Yadomae T. Comparison of the blood clearance of triple- and single-helical schizophyllan in mice. Biol. Pharmacol. Bull. 1995; 18: 185–189
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muller C. D., Bocchini V., Giaimis J., Guerrieri P., Lombard Y., Poindron P. Functional β -glucan receptor expression by a microglial cell line. Res. Immunol. 1994; 145: 267–275
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nanba H. Results of non-controlled clinical study for various cancer patients using maitake D-fraction. Explore 1995; 6: 19–21
   Google Scholar
• Nio Y., Tshuchitani T., Imai S., Shiraishi T., Kan N., Ohgaki K., Tobe T. Immunomodulating effects of oral administration of PSK. II. Its effects on mice with cecal tumors. Nippon Gan. Chiryo Gakkai Shi. 1988; 23: 1068–1076
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nono I., Ohno N., Masuda A., Oikawa S., Yadomae T. Oxidative degradation of an antitumor (1-3)-β -D-glucan, grifolan. J. Pharmacobiol. Dyn. 1991; 14: 9–19
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nowotny A. Molecular aspects of endotoxic reactions. Bact. Rev. 1969; 33: 72–98
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ohno N., Kurachi Y., Yadomae T. Physicochemical properties and antitumor activities of carboxymethylated derivatives of glucan from Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. Chem. Pharmacol. Bull. 1988; 36: 1198–1125
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ohno N., Miura N. N., Nakajima M., Yadomae T. Antitumor 1,3-beta-glucan from cultured fruit body of Sparassis crisp. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 2000; 23: 866–872
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patchen M. L., MacVitti T. J. Dose-dependent responses of murine pluripotent stem cells and myeloid and erythroid progenitor cells following administration of the immunomodulating agent glucan. Immunopharmacology 1983; 5: 303–313
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patchen M. L., MacVittie T. J. Stimulated hemopoiesis and enhanced survival following glucan treatment in sublethally- and lethally-irradiated mice. Int. J. Immunopharmacol. 1985; 7: 923–932
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pillemer L., Ecker E. E. Anti-complementary factor in fresh yeast. J. Biol. Chem. 1941; 137: 139–142
   Google Scholar
• Quinn P. J. Mechanisms of action of some immunomodulators used in veterinary medicine. Adv. Vet. Sci. Comp. Med. 1990; 35: 43–99
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rasmussen T. L., Seljelid R. Dynamics of blood compontents and peritoneal fluid during treatment of murine E. coli sepsis with β -1,3-D-polyglucose derivates. I. Cells. Scand. J. Immunol. 1990; 31: 321–331
   Google Scholar
• Rees D. A., Scott W. E. J. Polysaccharide conformation. Part VI Chem. Soc. (B) 1971; 6: 469–479
   Google Scholar
• Ross G. D., Vetvicka V., Yan J., Xia Y., Vetvicková J. Therapeutic intervention with complement and β -glucan in cancer. J. Immunopharmacol. 1999; 42: 61–74
   Google Scholar
• Rylander R., Thorn J., Attefors R. Airways inflammation among workers in a paper industry. Eur. Respir. J. 1999; 13: 1151–1158
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schepetkin I. A., Quinn M. T. Botanical polysaccharides: Macrophage immunomodulation and therapeutic potential. Int. Immunopharmacol. 2006; 6: 317–333
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saitô H., Ohki T., Takasuka N., Sasaki T. A 13C-N.M.R.-Spectral study of a gel-forming, branched (1 → 3)-β –glucan, (lentinan) from Lentinus edodes, and its acid-degraded fractions. Structure, and dependence of conformation on the molecular weight. Carbohydr. Res. 1977; 58: 293–305
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saitô H., Tabeta R., Yoshioka Y., Hara Ch., Kiho T., Ukai S. A high-resolution solid-state 13C NMR study of the secondary structure of branched (1 → 3)-β -D-glucans from fungi: Evidence of two kinds of conformers, curdlan-type single-helix and laminaran-type triple helix forms, as manifested from the conformation-dependent 13C chemical shifts. Bull. Chem. Soc. Japan 1987; 60: 4267–4272
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saitô H., Yoshioka Y., Uehara N., Aketagawa J., Tanaka S., Shibata Y. Relationship between conformation and biological response for (1-3)-β -D-glucans in the activation of coagulation factor G from limulus amebocyte lysate and host-mediated antitumor. Carbohydr. Res. 1991; 217: 181–190
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sakurai T., Hashimoto K., Suzuki I., Ohno N., Oikawa S., Masuda A., Yadomae T. Enhancement of murine alveolar macrophage functions by orally administered β -glucan. Int. J. Immunopharmacol. 1992; 14: 821–830
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sato M., Sano H. Direct binding to Toll-like receptor 2 to zymosan, and zymosan-induced NF-κ B activation and TNF-α secretion are down-regulated by lung collection surfactant protein. J. Immunol. 2003; 171: 417–425
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Selitrennikoff C. P. Antifungal proteins. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2001; 67: 2883–2894
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shear M. J., Turner F. C., Perrault A., Shovelton T. Chemical treatment of tumors. V. Isolation of the hemorrhage-producing fraction from Serratia marcescens (Bacillus prodigiosus) culture filtrates. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 1943; 4: 81–97
   Google Scholar
• Srivastava H. C., Adams G. A. Preparation and properties of polysaccharide-lipid complexes from Serratia marcescens. Can. J. Chem. 1962; 40: 905–918
   Google Scholar
• Stratford M. Another brick in the wall? Recent developments concerning the yeast cell envelope. Yeast 1994; 10: 1741–1752
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stuehr D. J., Nathan C. F. Nitric oxide. A macrophage product responsible for cytostasis and respiratory inhibition in tumor target cells. J. Exp. Med. 1989; 169: 1543–1555
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suzuki I., Sakurai T., Hashimoto K., Oikawa S., Masuda A., Ohsawa M., Yadomae T. Effect of orally administered beta-glucan on macrophage function in mice. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 1991; 39: 1606–1608
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Takeshita K., Saito N., Sato Y., Maruyama M., Sanagawa M., Habu H., Endo M. Diversity of complement activation by lentinan, an antitumor polysaccharide, in gastric cancer patients. Nippon Geka Gakkai Zasshi 1991; 92: 5–11
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tanriverdi P., Yuksel B. C., Rasa K., Guler G., Iskit A. B., Guc M. O., Korkmaz A. The effects of selective nitric oxide synthase blocker on survival, mesenteric blood flow and multiple organ failure induced by zymosan. J. Surg. Res. 2005; 124: 67–73
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsukada C., Yokoyama H., Miyaji C., Ishimoto Y., Kawamura H., Abo T. Immunopotentiation of intraepithelial lymphocytes in the intestine by oral administrations of beta-glucan. Cell. Imunol. 2003; 221: 1–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsung K., Norton J. A. Lessons from Coley's Toxin. Surgic. Oncol. 2006; 15: 25–28
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ueno H. Beta-1,3-D-glucan, its immune effect and its clinical use. J. Soc. Term. Syst. Dis. 2000; 6: 151–154
   Google Scholar
• Underhill D. M., Ozinsky A., Hajjar A. M., Stevens A., Wilson C. B., Bassetti M., Aderem A. The Toll-like receptor 2 is recruited to macrophage phagosomes and discriminates between pathogens. Nature 1999; 401: 811–815
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Wisselingh C. Mikrochemische Untersuchungen über die Zellwande der Fungi. Jahrb. Wiss. Botan. 1898; 31: 619–687
   Google Scholar
• Vetvicka V., Dvorak M., Vetvickova J., Richter J., Krizan J., Sima P., Yvin J. C. Orally-administered marine β -1,3 glucan phycarine stimulates both humoral and cellular immunity. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2007; 40: 291–298
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Větvička V., Terayama K., Mandeville R., Brousseau P., Kournikakis B., Ostroff G. Pilot study: Orally administered yeast β -1,3-glucan prophylactically protects against anthrax infection and cancer in mice. J. Am. Nutraceut. Assoc. 2002; 5: 1–6
   Google Scholar
• Vetvicka V., Thornton B. P., Ross G. D. Soluble β -glucan polysaccharide binding to the lectin site of neutrophil or natural killer cell complement receptor type 3 (CD11b/CD18) generates a primed state of the receptor capable of mediating cytotoxicity of iC3b-opsonized target cells. J. Clin. Invest. 1996; 98: 50–61
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vetvicka V., Yvin J. C. Effects of marine β -glucan on immune reaction. Int. Immunopharmacol. 2004; 4: 721–730
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vincent J. L., Zhang H., Szabo C., Preiser J. C. Effects of nitric oxide in septic shock. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2000; 161: 1781–1785
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wagner H., Stuppner H., Schafer W., Zenk M. Immunologically active polysaccharides of Echinacea purpurea cell cultures. Phytochem. 1988; 27: 119–126
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wagnerova J., Liskova A., Navarova J., Kristofova A., Trnovec T., Ferencik M. The effect of two glucan carboxymethyl derivatives with various substitution degrees on cyclophosphamide immunosuppression in mice. Immunopharmacol. Immunotoxicol. 1993; 15: 227–242
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Werner G. H. Prospective views on unexplored pathways of immunostimulation. Immunostimulants: Now and Tomorrow, I. Azuma, G. Jolles. Japan Sci. Press: Tokyo/Springer Verlag, Berlin 1987; 207–215
   Google Scholar
• Whistler R. L., Bushway A. A., Singh P. P., Nakahara W., Tokuzen R. Non-cytotoxic anti-tumor polysaccharides. Adv. Carbohydr. Chem. Biochem. 1976; 32: 235–275
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• White T. R., Thompson R. C., Penhale W. J., Chihara G. The effects of lentinan on the resistance of mice to Mesocestoides corti. Parasitol. Res. 1988; 74: 563–568
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams D. L., Al-Tuwaijri A., DiLuzio N. R. Influence of glucan on experimental infections in mice. Int. J. Immunopharmacol. 1980; 2: 189–198
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams D. L., Yaeger R. G., Pretus H. A., Browder I. W., McNamee R. B., Jones E. L. Immunization against Trypanosoma cruzi: Adjuvant effect of glucan. Int. J. Immunopharmacol. 1989; 11: 403–410
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yan J., Vetvicka V., Xia Y., Coxon A., Carroll M. C., Mayadas T. N., Ross G. D. β -glucan, a “specific” biologic response modifier that uses antibodies to target tumors for cytotoxic recognition by leukocyte complement receptor type 3 (CD11b/CD18). J. Immunol. 1999; 163: 3045–3052
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young S. H., Jacobs R. R. Sodium hydroxide-induced conformational change in schizophyllan detected by the fluorescence dye, aniline blue. Carbohydr. Res. 1998; 310: 91–99
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoshioka S., Ohno N., Miura T., Adachi Y., Yadomae T. Immunotoxicity of soluble β -glucans induced by indomethacin treatment. FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. 1998; 21: 171–179
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yun C. H., Estrada A., Van Kessel A., Gajadhar A., Redmond M., Laarveld B. Immunomodulatory effects of oat β -glucan administered intragastrically or parenterally on mice infected with Eimeria vermiformis. Microbiol. Immunol. 1998; 42: 457–465
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar