A Lack of Effect Studies and of Effects: The Use of Strategic Communication in the Military Domain

References

• Adams, B. D., Sartori, J., & Waldherr, S. (2007). Military influence operations: Review of relevant scientific literature ( Report No. CR 2007-146). Toronto: Defense Research and Development Canada (DRDC).
   Google Scholar
• Adamson, W. G. (1997). The effects of real-time news coverage on military decision-making ( Report No. AU/ACSC/0304/97-03). Montgomery, AL: Air Command and Staff College.
   Google Scholar
• Arquilla, J. (1999). Ethics and information warfare. In Z. Khalilzad, J. White, & A. Marsall (Eds.), Strategic appraisal: The changing role of information in warfare (pp. 379–401). Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation.
   Google Scholar
• Asch, S. E. (1951). Effects of group pressure upon the modification and distortion of judgment. In H. Guetzkow (Ed.), Groups, leadership and men: Research in human relations (pp. 177–190). Pittsburgh, PA: Carnegie Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bar-Tal, D., & Halperin, E. (2013). The psychology of intractable conflicts: Eruption, escalation, and peacemaking. In L. Huddy, D. O. Sears, & J. S. Levy (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of political psychology (2nd ed., pp. 923–956). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Finkenauer, C., & Vohs, K. D. (2001). Bad is stronger than good. Review of General Psychology, 5(4), 323–370. doi:10.1037%2F1089-2680.5.4.323
   Google Scholar
• Botan, C. H. (2017). Strategic communication theory and practice: The cocreational model. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Breznitz, S. (1983). The seven kinds of denial. In S. Breznitz (Ed.), The denial of stress (pp. 257–286). New York, NY: International Universities press.
   Google Scholar
• Brunner, E. M., & Cavelty, M. D. (2009). The formation of in-formation by the US military: Articulation and enactment of infomanic threat imaginaries on the immaterial battlefield of perception. Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 22(4), 629–646. doi:10.1080/09557570903325454
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buss, D. M. (1999). Evolutionary psychology: The new science of the mind. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
   Google Scholar
• Cameron, C. D., & Payne, B. K. (2011). Escaping affect: How motivated emotion regulation creates insensitivity to mass suffering. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(1), 1–15. doi:10.1037/a0021643
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crawford, G. A. (1997). Information warfare: New roles for information systems in military operations. Washington, DC: Department of the Air Force.
   Google Scholar
• Cronin, B., & Crawford, H. (1999). Information warfare: Its application in military and civilian contexts. The Information Society, 15(4), 257–263. doi:10.1080/019722499128420
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dearth, D. H. (2002). Shaping the ‘information space’. Journal of Information Warfare, 1(3), 1–15.
   Google Scholar
• Drabek, T. E. (1986). Human systems responses to disaster: An inventory of sociological findings. New York, NY: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Einstein, M. (2016). Black Ops advertising. New York, NY: OR Books.
   Google Scholar
• Emery, N. E. (2008). Irregular warfare information operations: Understanding the role of people, capabilities and effects. Military Review, 27–38.
   Google Scholar
• Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (1991). Social cognition (2nd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Försvarsmakten [Swedish Armed Forces]. (2014). Operativ doktrin 2014 [Operational Doctrine 2014]. Retrieved from https://www.forsvarsmakten.se/siteassets/4-om-myndigheten/dokumentfiler/doktriner/operativ-doktrin-2014.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Försvarsmakten [Swedish Armed Forces]. (2016). Militärstrategisk doktrin 2016 [Military Strategic Doctrine 2016]. Retrieved from https://www.forsvarsmakten.se/siteassets/4-om-myndigheten/dokumentfiler/doktriner/militarstrategisk-doktrin-2016-ny.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Franke, U. (2013). Information operations on the Internet: A catalog of modi operandi (Report No. FOI-Re3658eSE). Stockholm: The Swedish Defence Research Agency (FOI).
   Google Scholar
• Garfield, A. (2007). The US counter-propaganda failure in Iraq. Middle East Quarterly, 22–32.
   Google Scholar
• Gibb, R. W. (2000). A theoretical model to attack the enemy’s decision-making process. Newport, RI: Naval War College.
   Google Scholar
• Giles, K. (2016). The next phase of Russian information warfare. Riga, Latvia: NATO StratCom COE. Retrieved from http://www.stratcomcoe.org/publications
   Google Scholar
• Glenn, C. M. (1979). Natural disasters and human behavior: Explanation, research and models. Psychology: A Journal of Human Behavior, 16, 23–36.
   Google Scholar
• Hallahan, K., Holtzhausen, D., van Ruler, B., Verčič, D., & Sriramesh, K. (2007). Defining strategic communication. International Journal of Strategic Communication, 1(1), 3–35. doi:10.1080/15531180701285244
   Google Scholar
• Headquarters, Department of the Army. (2005). Psyop: Military psychological operations manual (Report no FM 3-05.30, MCRP 3-40.6). Washington, DC: Mind Control Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Helmus, T. C., Paul, C., & Glenn, R. W. (2007). Enlisting Madison Avenue: The marketing approach to earning popular support in theaters of operation (Vol. 607). Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation.
   Google Scholar
• Henry, R., & Peartree, C. E. (1998). Military theory and information warfare. Parameters, 28(3), 121–135.
   Google Scholar
• Heuer, R. J. (1999). Psychology of intelligence analysis. Langley, VA: Central Intelligence Agency, Center for the study of intelligence.
   Google Scholar
• Huddy, L. (2013). From group identity to political cohesion and commitment. In L. Huddy, D. O. Sears, & J. S. Levy (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of political psychology (2nd ed., pp. 923–956). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hutchinson, W. (2006). Information warfare and deception. Informing Science, 9, 213–223. doi:10.28945/480
   Google Scholar
• Janis, I. L. (1972). Victims of groupthink. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
   Google Scholar
• Janis, I. L., & Mann, L. (1977). Emergency decision-making: A theoretical analysis of responses to disaster warnings. Journal of Human Stress, 3, 35–45. doi:10.1080/0097840X.1977.9936085
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janoff-Bulman, R., & Timko, C. (1987). Coping with traumatic events: The role of denial in light of people’s assumptive worlds. In C. R. Snyder & C. E. Ford (Eds.), Coping with negative life events (pp. 135–160). New York, NY: Plenum press.
   Google Scholar
• Jenni, K., & Loewenstein, G. (1997). Explaining the identifiable victim effect. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 14(3), 235–257. doi:10.1023/A:1007740225484
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jervis, R. (1988). War and misperception. The Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 18(4), 675–700. doi:10.2307/204820
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joint Chiefs of Staff. (2003). Doctrine for joint psychological operations, Joint Pub 3-53. Washington, DC: GPOGL-11.
   Google Scholar
• Katz, P. P., McLaurin, R. D., & Abbot, P. S. (1996). A critical analysis of US PSYOP. In F. L. Goldstein (Ed.), Psychological operations: Principles and case studies. Maxwell Air Force Base, AL: Air University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Konnander, F. (2012). Psykologiska operationer: Oljan i COIN-maskineriet? [Psychological operations: The oil in the CION machinery]. Kungl Krigsvetenskapsakademiens Handlingar Och Tidskrift [The Royal Swedish Academy of War Sciences’ Proceedings and Journal], 2, 155–174.
   Google Scholar
• Krebs, D. L., & Denton, K. (1997). Social illusions and self-deception: The evolution of biases in person perception. In J. A. Simpson & D. T. Kenrick (Eds.), Evolutionary social psychology (pp. 21–48). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
   Google Scholar
• Lamb, C. (2005). Review of psychological operations lessons learned from recent operational experience. Washington, DC: National Defence University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Landahl, P. (1989). Om sanningen ska fram – Det psykologiska försvaret i Sverige under 35 år [If truth is to be told - The psychological defense in Sweden for 35 years]. Stockholm: Styrelsen för psykologiskt försvar [The Board of Psychological Defense].
   Google Scholar
• Landahl, P. (1990). Psykologisk krigföring [Psychological warfare]. In Försvar i nutid [Defence in Present Time] 4/90. Stockholm: Folk och försvar [People and defense].
   Google Scholar
• Livingston, S. (1997). Clarifying the CNN effect: An examination of media effects according to type of military intervention (Research Paper R-18). Cambridge, MA: John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University.
   Google Scholar
• Lundgren, J. (2013). The Nordics’ fear of the Russian bear-The Nordics’ threat perception of Russia’s military capacity as portrayed by media and the structural factors behind this picture ( Master thesis). University of Gothenburg, Centre for European studies, Gothenburg.
   Google Scholar
• Makhnin, V. L. (2013). Reflexive processes in military art: The historico-gnoseological aspect. Military Thought, 1, 31–46.
   Google Scholar
• Mallet, E. E. (1997). Propaganda and psychological operations as tools of warfare during the Persian Gulf conflict, 1990–91. Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 10(2), 280–297. doi:10.1080/09557579708400151
   Google Scholar
• Mann, E. C., III, Endersby, G., & Searle, T. R. (2002). Thinking effects. Effects-based methodology for joint operations. Maxwell Air Force Base, AL: Air University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mattsson, P. A. (2016). Warfare without armed confrontation: Russian psychological methods directed against Sweden. In K. Almqvist & M. Hessérus (Eds.), Finland and Sweden - Partners with a mutual interest? Stockholm: Axess Publishing AB.
   Google Scholar
• McConnell, L. M. (2005, February 4). Redefining combined arms in today’s operational environment. Retrieved from Defense Technical Information Center: http://handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA507329
   Google Scholar
• McLendon, J. W. (1994). Information warfare: Impact and concerns. Montgomery, AL: Air Command and Staff College.
   Google Scholar
• Mesch, P. (2014). Det nya propagandakriget- En studie om det moraliska rättfärdigandet i användandet av psykologiska operationer [The new propaganda war - A study of the moral justification of the use of psychological operations]. Lund University, Department of Political Science. Retrieved from http://lup.lub.lu.se/student-papers/record/4451172
   Google Scholar
• Milgram, S. (1974). Obedience to authority. New York, NY: Harper & Row.
   Google Scholar
• The Ministry of Defence. (1995). Sverige i Europa och världen [Sweden in Europe and the world] (Report from the Defence Commission No. Ds 1995:28). Stockholm: Author.
   Google Scholar
• Munoz, A. (2012). US military information operations in Afghanistan: Effectiveness of psychological operations 2001-2010. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation.
   Google Scholar
• Murray, S. K., & Meyers, J. (1999). Do people need foreign enemies? American leaders’ beliefs after the Soviet demise. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 43, 555–569. doi:10.1177%2F0022002799043005001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nissen, T. E. (2007). The Taliban’s information warfare. Copenhagen: Royal Danish Defence College.
   Google Scholar
• Perloff, L. S. (1983). Perceptions of vulnerability to victimization. Journal of Social Issues, 39(2), 41–61. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1983.tb00140.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plowman, K. D. (2017). Big strategy to little strategy: A multiple case analysis of public affairs planning. Journal of Public Affairs, 17(3), 1627. doi:10.1002/pa.1627
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richardson, J. (2007). A critique of “Brainwashing” claims about new religious movements. In L. Dawson (Ed.), Cults and new religious movements: A reader (pp. 160–166). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Rieber, R., & Kelley, R. (1991). Substance and shadow: Images of the enemy. In R. Rieber (Ed.), The psychology of war and peace (pp. 3–38). New York, NY: Plenum Press.
   Google Scholar
• Sahgal, A., & Anand, V. (2007). Revolution in military affairs and jointness. Journal of Defence Studies, 1(1), 113–132.
   Google Scholar
• Silverstein, B. (1989). Enemy images: The psychology of U.S. attitudes and cognitions regarding the Soviet Union. American Psychologist, 44(6), 903–913. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.44.6.903
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suarez, B. (2015, February 16). Unlimited War! ISIS Psyop theather comes to full fruition. Global Research. Retrieved from http://www.globalresearch.ca/unlimited-war-isis-psyop-theater-comes-to-full-fruition/5431585.
   Google Scholar
• Szafranski, R. (1995). A theory of information warfare: Preparing for 2020. Airpower Journal, 56–65.
   Google Scholar
• Taillard, M., & Giscoppa, H. (2013). Psychology and modern warfare: Idea management in conflict and competition. Hampshire, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Tetlock, P. E., & McGuire, C., Jr. (1986). Cognitive perspectives on foreign policy. In S. Long (Ed.), Political behavior annual (Vol. 1, pp. 255–273). Boulder, CO: Westview.
   Google Scholar
• Thomas, T. (2004). Russia’s reflexive control theory and the military. Journal of Slavic Military Studies, 17(2), 237–256. doi:10.1080/13518040490450529
   Google Scholar
• van Niekerk, B., Pillay, K., & Maharaj, M. (2011). The Arab Spring - Analyzing the role of ICTs in the Tunisian and Egyptian unrest from an information warfare perspective. International Journal of Communication, 5(11), 1406–1416.
   Google Scholar
• Volkan, V. D. (1985). The need to have enemies and allies: A developmental approach. Political Psychology, 6(2), 219–247. doi:10.2307/3790902
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker, F. W. (1996). Strategic conceptions for military operations. In F. L. Goldstein (Ed.), Psychological operations: Principles and case studies (pp. 17–24). Maxwell Air Force Base, AL: Air University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Wallenius,C. (2001). Human adaptation to danger ( Doctoral dissertation). Lund University, Department of Psychology, Lund.
   Google Scholar
• Winter, C. (2015). The virtual ‘Caliphate’: Understanding Islamic State’s propaganda strategy. London: Quilliam Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Yaworsky, W. (2009). Target analysis of shining path insurgents in Peru: An example of US army psychological operations. Journal of Strategic Studies, 32(4), 651–666. doi:10.1080/01402390902987087
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zaki, J. (2014). Empathy: A motivated account. Psychological Bulletin, 140(6), 1608–1647. doi:10.1037/a0037679
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zerfass, A., Verčič, D., Nothhaft, H., & Werder, K. P. (2018). Strategic communication: Defining the field and its contribution to research and practice. International Journal of Strategic Communication, 12(4), 487–505. doi:10.1080/1553118X.2018.1493485v
   Google Scholar
• Zimbardo, P. G. (2007). The Lucifer effect: Understanding how good people turn evil. New York, NY: Random House.
   Google Scholar