A Framework for Understanding the Effects of Strategic Communication Campaigns

References

• Abaluck, J., Kwong, L., Styczynski, A., Haque, A., Kabir, M. A., Bates-Jefferys, E., Crawford, E., Benjamin-Chung, J., Benhachmi, S., Raihan, S., Rahman, S., Zaman, N., Winch, P., Hossain, M. M., Reza, H. M., Luby, S., & Mobarak, A. M. (2021). Normalizing community mask-wearing: A cluster randomized trial in Bangladesh. National Bureau of Economic Research, 1–54. https://doi.org/10.3386/w28734
   Google Scholar
• Allcott, H. (2011). Social norms and energy conservation. Journal of Public Economics, 95(9), 1082–1095. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2011.03.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aronoff, K. (2018, November 7). The fossil fuel industry spent $100 million to kill green ballot measures in three states—and won. The Intercept. https://theintercept.com/2018/11/07/midterm-elections-green-ballot-measures-fossil-fuel/
   Google Scholar
• Bakshy, E., Rosenn, I., Marlow, C., & Adamic, L. (2012). The role of social networks in information diffusion. Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on World Wide Web - WWW, 12, 519–528. https://doi.org/10.1145/2187836.2187907
   Google Scholar
• Banas, J. A., & Rains, S. A. (2010). A meta-analysis of research on Inoculation Theory. Communication Monographs, 77(3), 281–311. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751003758193
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berinsky, A. J., Margolis, M. F., & Sances, M. W. (2014). Separating the shirkers from the workers? Making sure respondents pay attention on self-administered surveys. American Journal of Political Science, 58(3), 739–753. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12081
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bokemper, S. E., Cucciniello, M., Rotesi, T., Pin, P., Malik, A. A., Willebrand, K., Paintsil, E. E., Omer, S. B., Huber, G. A., & Melegaro, A. (2021). Experimental evidence that changing beliefs about mask efficacy and social norms increase mask wearing for COVID-19 risk reduction: Results from the United States and Italy. PLOS ONE, 16(10), e0258282. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0258282
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Box, G. E. P. (1976). Science and statistics. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 71(356), 791–799. https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1976.10480949
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Broockman, D., & Kalla, J. (2016). Durably reducing transphobia: A field experiment on door-to-door canvassing. Science, 352(6282), 220–224. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aad9713
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chong, D., & Druckman, J. N. (2007). A theory of framing and opinion formation in competitive elite environments. Journal of Communication, 57(1), 99–118. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2006.00331.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chong, D., & Druckman, J. N. (2010). Dynamic public opinion: Communication effects over time. American Political Science Review, 104(4), 663–680. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055410000493
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chong, D., & Druckman, J. N. (2013). Counterframing effects. The Journal of Politics, 75(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022381612000837
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Compton, J. (2013). Inoculation theory. The Sage Handbook of Persuasion: Developments in Theory and Practice, 2, 220–237. https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_SAGE_Handbook_of_Persuasion/ZO1yAwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Inoculation+theory.+The+Sage+Handbook+of+Persuasion:+Developments+in+Theory+and+Practice&pg=PT226&printsec=frontcover
   Google Scholar
• Cook, J., Lewandowsky, S., & Ecker, U. K. H. (2017). Neutralizing misinformation through inoculation: Exposing misleading argumentation techniques reduces their influence. PLOS ONE, 12(5), e0175799. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0175799
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cook, J., Oreskes, N., Doran, P. T., Anderegg, W. R. L., Verheggen, B., Maibach, E. W., Carlton, J. S., Lewandowsky, S., Skuce, A. G., Green, S. A., Nuccitelli, D., Jacobs, P., Richardson, M., Winkler, B., Painting, R., & Rice, K. (2016). Consensus on consensus: A synthesis of consensus estimates on human-caused global warming. Environmental Research Letters, 11(4), 048002. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/11/4/048002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coppock, A. E. (2016). Positive, small, homogeneous, and durable: Political persuasion in response to information. Columbia University. https://doi.org/10.7916/D8J966CS
   Google Scholar
• Coppock, A., Ekins, E., & Kirby, D. (2018). The long-lasting effects of newspaper op-eds on public opinion. Quarterly Journal of Political Science, 13(1), 59–87. https://doi.org/10.1561/100.00016112
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coppock, A., & Green, D. P. (2016). Is voting habit forming? New evidence from experiments and regression discontinuities. American Journal of Political Science, 60(4), 1044–1062. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12210
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dennett, D. C. (1991). Real patterns. The Journal of Philosophy, 88(1), 27–51. https://doi.org/10.2307/2027085
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Druckman, J. N., Levendusky, M. S., & McLain, A. (2018). No need to watch: How the effects of partisan media can spread via interpersonal discussions. American Journal of Political Science, 62(1), 99–112. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12325
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (2011). Predicting and changing behavior: The reasoned action approach. Taylor & Francis.
   Google Scholar
• Freedman, L. (2015). Strategy: A history. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Fried, E. I. (2020). Theories and models: What they are, what they are for, and what they are about. Psychological Inquiry, 31(4), 336–344. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2020.1854011
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gabel, M., & Scheve, K. (2007). Estimating the effect of elite communications on public opinion using instrumental variables. American Journal of Political Science, 51(4), 1013–1028. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2007.00294.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerber, A. S., & Green, D. P. (2012). Field experiments: Design, analysis, and interpretation. WW Norton.
   Google Scholar
• Gerber, A. S., Green, D. P., & Shachar, R. (2003). Voting may be habit-forming: Evidence from a randomized field experiment. American Journal of Political Science, 47(3), 540–550. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-5907.00038
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gifford, R. (2011). The dragons of inaction: Psychological barriers that limit climate change mitigation and adaptation. American Psychologist, 66(4), 290–302. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023566
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldberg, M. H., Gustafson, A., Maibach, E. W., Ballew, M. T., Bergquist, P., Kotcher, J. E., Marlon, J. R., Rosenthal, S. A., & Leiserowitz, A. (2020). Mask-wearing increased after a government recommendation: A natural experiment in the U.S. during the COVID-19 pandemic. Frontiers in Communication, 5(44), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2020.00044
   Google Scholar
• Goldberg, M. H., Gustafson, A., Rosenthal, S. A., & Leiserowitz, A. (2021). Shifting Republican views on climate change through targeted advertising. Nature Climate Change, 11(7), 573–577. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-021-01070-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldberg, M. H., Gustafson, A., & van der Linden, S. (2020). Leveraging social science to generate lasting engagement with climate change solutions. One Earth, 3(3), 314–324. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2020.08.011
   Google Scholar
• Green, D. P., & Gerber, A. S. (2019). Get out the vote: How to increase voter turnout. Brookings Institution Press.
   Google Scholar
• Guess, A. M., Lerner, M., Lyons, B., Montgomery, J. M., Nyhan, B., Reifler, J., & Sircar, N. (2020). A digital media literacy intervention increases discernment between mainstream and false news in the United States and India. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(27), 15536–15545. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1920498117
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gustafson, A., & Goldberg, M. (2018). Even Americans highly concerned about climate change dramatically underestimate the scientific consensus. Yale Program on Climate Change Communication. https://climatecommunication.yale.edu/publications/even-americans-highly-concerned-about-climate-change-dramatically-underestimate-the-scientific-consensus/
   Google Scholar
• Gustafson, A., & Rice, R. E. (2020). A review of the effects of uncertainty in public science communication. Public Understanding of Science, 29(6), 614–633. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963662520942122
   Google Scholar
• Hauser, D. J., & Schwarz, N. (2016). Attentive Turkers: MTurk participants perform better on online attention checks than do subject pool participants. Behavior Research Methods, 48(1), 400–407. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-015-0578-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hollis, J. F., Polen, M. R., Whitlock, E. P., Lichtenstein, E., Mullooly, J. P., Velicer, W. F., & Redding, C. A. (2005). Teen reach: Outcomes from a randomized, controlled trial of a tobacco reduction program for teens seen in primary medical care. Pediatrics, 115(4), 981–989. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2004-0981
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iyengar, R., Van den Bulte, C., & Valente, T. W. (2011). Opinion leadership and social contagion in new product diffusion. Marketing Science, 30(2), 195–212. https://doi.org/10.1287/mksc.1100.0566
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalla, J. L., & Broockman, D. E. (2020). Reducing exclusionary attitudes through interpersonal conversation: Evidence from three field experiments. American Political Science Review, 114(2), 410–425. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055419000923
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kane, J. V., & Barabas, J. (2019). No harm in checking: Using factual manipulation checks to assess attentiveness in experiments. American Journal of Political Science, 63(1), 234–249. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12396
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katz, E., & Lazarsfeld, P. F. (1955). Personal influence: The part played by people in the flow of mass communications. Free Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kruglanski, A. W. (2004). The quest for the gist: On challenges of going abstract in social and personality psychology. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 8(2), 156–163. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0802_9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kruglanski, A. W., Bélanger, J. J., Chen, X., Köpetz, C., Pierro, A., & Mannetti, L. (2012). The energetics of motivated cognition: A force-field analysis. Psychological Review, 119(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025488
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Latane, B. (1981). The psychology of social impact. American Psychologist, 36(4), 343–356. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.36.4.343
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leiserowitz, A., Maibach, E., Rosenthal, S., Kotcher, J., Carman, J., Wang, X., Goldberg, M., Lacroix, K., & Marlon, J. (2021). Climate change in the American mind: December 2020. Yale Program on Climate Change Communication.
   Google Scholar
• Lewandowsky, S., & van der Linden, S. (2021). Countering misinformation and fake news through inoculation and prebunking. European Review of Social Psychology, 32(2), 348–384. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2021.1876983
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewin, K. (1951). Field theory in social science. New York, NY: Harper & Brothers.
   Google Scholar
• Lewis, N., & Wai, J. (2020). Communicating what we know and what isn’t so: Science communication in psychology. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 16(6), 1242–1254. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691620964062
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maertens, R., Roozenbeek, J., Basol, M., & van der Linden, S. (2020). Long-term effectiveness of inoculation against misinformation: Three longitudinal experiments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 27(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1037/xap0000315
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matthews. (2020, October 1). Does knocking on doors really help get out the vote in elections? https://www.vox.com/21366036/canvass-ground-game-turnout-gotv-phone-bank-tv-ads-mailers
   Google Scholar
• McCombs, M. E., & Shaw, D. L. (1972). The agenda-setting function of mass media. Public Opinion Quarterly, 36(2), 176–187. https://doi.org/10.1086/267990
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCombs, M. E., Shaw, D. L., & Weaver, D. H. (2014). New directions in agenda-setting theory and research. Mass Communication and Society, 17(6), 781–802. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2014.964871
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGrath, J. E. (1982). Dilemmatics: The study of research choices and dilemmas. Sage.
   Google Scholar
• McGuire, W. J. (1993). The big one. Psychological Inquiry, 4(4), 370–378. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/1449655
   Google Scholar
• Mousa, S. (2020). Building social cohesion between Christians and Muslims through soccer in post-ISIS Iraq. Science, 369(6505), 866–870. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abb3153
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nickerson, D. W. (2008). Is voting contagious? Evidence from two field experiments. American Political Science Review, 102(1), 49–57. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055408080039
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noar, S. M., Palmgreen, P., Chabot, M., Dobransky, N., & Zimmerman, R. S. (2009). A 10-year systematic review of HIV/AIDS mass communication campaigns: Have we made progress? Journal of Health Communication, 14(1), 15–42. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730802592239
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oppenheimer, D. M., Meyvis, T., & Davidenko, N. (2009). Instructional manipulation checks: Detecting satisficing to increase statistical power. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(4), 867–872. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.03.009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oreskes, N., & Conway, E. M. (2011). Merchants of doubt: How a handful of scientists obscured the truth on issues from tobacco smoke to global warming. Bloomsbury Publishing USA.
   Google Scholar
• Paluck, E. L. (2009). Reducing intergroup prejudice and conflict using the media: A field experiment in Rwanda. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(3), 574–587. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0011989
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pennycook, G., McPhetres, J., Zhang, Y., Lu, J. G., & Rand, D. G. (2020). Fighting COVID-19 misinformation on social media: Experimental evidence for a scalable accuracy-nudge intervention. Psychological Science, 31(7), 770–780. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797620939054
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion. In R. E. Petty & J. T. Cacioppo (Eds.), Communication and Persuasion: Central and Peripheral Routes to Attitude Change (pp. 1–24). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-4964-1_1
   Google Scholar
• Prior, M. (2013). Media and political polarization. Annual Review of Political Science, 16(1), 101–127. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-polisci-100711-135242
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rode, J. B., Dent, A. L., Benedict, C. N., Brosnahan, D. B., Martinez, R. L., & Ditto, P. H. (2021). Influencing climate change attitudes in the United States: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 76, 101623. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2021.101623
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rogers, E. M., & Shoemaker, F. F. (1971). Communication of innovations; A cross-cultural approach. New York, NY: The Free Press. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED065999
   Google Scholar
• Rogers, E. M., Singhal, A., & Quinlan, M. M. (2014). Diffusion of innovations. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Roozenbeek, J., & van der Linden, S. (2019). Fake news game confers psychological resistance against online misinformation. Palgrave Communications, 5(65), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-019-0279-9
   Google Scholar
• Samuelson, W., & Zeckhauser, R. (1988). Status quo bias in decision making. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 1(1), 7–59. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00055564
   Google Scholar
• Shoemaker, P. J., Tankard, J. W., Jr, & Lasorsa, D. L. (2003). How to build social science theories. SAGE Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, R. D. (2017). Strategic planning for public relations. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Supran, G., & Oreskes, N. (2017). Assessing ExxonMobil’s climate change communications (1977–2014). Environmental Research Letters, 12(8), 084019. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aa815f
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Linden, S., Leiserowitz, A., Rosenthal, S., & Maibach, E. (2017). Inoculating the public against misinformation about climate change. Global Challenges, 1(2), 1600008. https://doi.org/10.1002/gch2.201600008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Lange, P. A. M. (2013). What we should expect from theories in social psychology: Truth, abstraction, progress, and applicability as standards (TAPAS). Personality and Social Psychology Review, 17(1), 40–55. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868312453088
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Ruler, B. (2018). Communication theory: An underrated pillar on which strategic communication rests. International Journal of Strategic Communication, 12(4), 367–381. https://doi.org/10.1080/1553118X.2018.1452240
   Google Scholar
• Werder, K. P., Nothhaft, H., Verčič, D., & Zerfass, A. (2018). Strategic communication as an emerging interdisciplinary paradigm. International Journal of Strategic Communication, 12(4), 333–351. https://doi.org/10.1080/1553118X.2018.1494181
   Google Scholar
• Witte, K. (1992). Putting the fear back into fear appeals: The extended parallel process model. Communication Monographs, 59(4), 329–349. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637759209376276
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. (2017) . WHO report on the global tobacco epidemic, 2017: Monitoring tobacco use and prevention policies.
   Google Scholar
• Yarkoni, T. (2020). Implicit realism impedes progress in psychology: Comment on Fried (2020). Psychological Inquiry, 31(4), 326–333. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2020.1853478
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zaller, J. R. (1992). The nature and origins of mass opinion. Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Zerfass, A., Verčič, D., Nothhaft, H., & Werder, K. P. (2018). Strategic communication: Defining the field and its contribution to research and practice. International Journal of Strategic Communication, 12(4), 487–505. https://doi.org/10.1080/1553118X.2018.1493485
   Google Scholar