Recruiting, Linking, and Retaining High-Risk Transgender Women Into HIV Prevention and Care Services: An Overview of Barriers, Strategies, and Lessons Learned

REFERENCES

• Areán, P. A., Alvidrez, J., Nery, R., Estes, C., & Linkins, K. (2003). Recruitment and retention of older minorities in mental health services research. The Gerontologist, 43(1), 36–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geront/43.1.36
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baral, S. D., Poteat, T., Strömdahl, S., Wirtz, A. L., Guadamuz, T. E., & Beyrer, C. (2013) Worldwide burden of HIV in transgender women: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infectious Diseases, 13, 214–222. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(12)70315-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barrington, C., Wejnert, C., Guardado, M., Nieto, A., & Bailey, G. (2012). Social network characteristics and HIV vulnerability among transgender persons in San Salvador: Identifying opportunities for HIV prevention strategies. AIDS and Behavior, 16, 214–224. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10461-011-9959-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bauer, G. R., Hammond, R., Travers, R., Kaay, M., Hohenadel, K. M., & Boyce, M. (2009). "I don't think this is theoretical; this is our lives": How erasure impacts health care for transgender people. Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 20, 348–361. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jana.2009.07.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bauer, G. R., Travers, R., Scanlon, K., & Coleman, T. A. (2012). High heterogeneity of HIV-related sexual risk among transgender people in Ontario, Canada: A province-wide respondent-driven sampling survey. BMC Public Health, 12(1), 292. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-292
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benotsch, E. G., Zimmerman, R., Cathers, L., McNulty, S., Pierce, J., Heck, T. … Snipes, D. (2013). Non-medical use of prescription drugs, polysubstance use, and mental health in transgender adults. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 132, 391–394. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.02.027
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bockting, W. O., Miner, M. H., Swinburne Romine, R. E., Hamilton, A., & Coleman, E. (2013). Stigma, mental health, and resilience in an online sample of the US transgender population. American Journal of Public Health, 103, 943–951. http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2013.301241
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowers, J. R., Branson, C. M., Fletcher, J. B., & Reback, C. J. (2012). Predictors of HIV sexual risk behavior among men who have sex with men, men who have sex with men and women, and transgender women. International Journal of Sexual Health, 24, 290–302. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19317611.2012.715120
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bradford, J. B., Coleman, S., & Cunningham, W. (2007). HIV System Navigation: An emerging model to improve HIV care access. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 21, S-49–S-58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/apc.2007.9987
   Google Scholar
• Broadhead, R. S., & Fox, K. J. (1990). Takin' it to the streets: AIDS outreach as ethnography. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 19, 322–348. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/089124190019003004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2007). HIV/AIDS and transgender persons. Washington, DC: Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/lgbthealth/pdf/fs-transgender-06192007.pdf
   Google Scholar
• De Santis, J. P. (2009). HIV infection risk factors among male-to-female transgender persons: A review of the literature. Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 20, 362–372. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jana.2009.06.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dewey, J. M. (2008). Knowledge legitimacy: How trans-patient behavior supports and challenges current medical knowledge. Qualitative Health Research, 18, 1345–1355. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1049732308324247
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fletcher, J. B., Kisler, K. A., & Reback, C. J. (2014). Housing status and HIV risk behaviors among transgender women in Los Angeles. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 48, 1651–1661. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0368-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fredriksen-Goldsen, K. I., Cook-Daniels, L., Kim, H.-J., Erosheva, E. A., Emlet, C. A., Hoy-Ellis, C. P. … Muraco, A. (2013). Physical and mental health of transgender older adults: An at-risk and underserved population. The Gerontologist, 54, 488–500. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnt021
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gardner, E. M., McLees, M. P., Steiner, J. F., del Rio, C., & Burman, W. J. (2011). The spectrum of engagement in HIV care and its relevance to test-and-treat strategies for prevention of HIV infection. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 52, 793–800. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciq243
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gijs, L., van der Putten-Bierman, E., & De Cuypere, G. (2014). Psychiatric comorbidity in adults with gender identity problems. In B. P. C. Kreukels, T. D. Steensma, & A. L. C. de Vries (Eds.), Gender dysphoria and disorders of sex development (pp. 255–276): New York, NY: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Gleason, H., Costanzo, M., Oost, K., Livingston, N., & Cochran, B. (2014, November). A systematic review of mental illness in the transgender community. Paper presented at the 142nd American Public Health Association (APHA) Annual Meeting and Exposition, New Orleans, LA. Retrieved from https://apha.confex.com/apha/142am/webprogram/Paper309675.html
   Google Scholar
• Grant, J. M., Mottet, L. A., Tanis, J., Harrison, J., Herman, J. L., & Keisling, M. (2011). Injustice at every turn: A report of the National Transgender Discrimination Survey. Washington, DC: National Center for Transgender Equality and the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force.
   Google Scholar
• Green-Hamann, S., & Sherblom, J. C. (2013). Developing a transgender identity in a virtual community. In C. Cunningham (Ed.), Social networking and impression management (pp. 185–205). Plymouth, UK: Lexington Books.
   Google Scholar
• Herbst, J. H., Jacobs, E. D., Finlayson, T. J., McKleroy, V. S., Neumann, M. S., & Crepaz, N. (2008). Estimating HIV prevalence and risk behaviors of transgender persons in the United States: A systematic review. AIDS Behavior, 12, 1–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10461-007-9299-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hines, S., & Sanger, T. (Eds.). (2010). Transgender identities: Towards a social analysis of gender diversity. New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Hoffman, B. R. (2014). The interaction of drug use, sex work, and HIV among transgender women. Substance Use and Misuse, 49, 1049–1053. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/10826084.2013.855787
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hough, R. L., Tarke, H., Renker, V., Shields, P., & Glatstein, J. (1996). Recruitment and retention of homeless mentally ill participants in research. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 881–891. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.64.5.881
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horvath, K. J., Iantaffi, A., Swinburne-Romine, R., & Bockting, W. (2013). A comparison of mental health, substance use, and sexual risk behaviors between rural and non-rural transgender persons. Journal of Homosexuality, 61, 1117–1130. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2014.872502
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Institute of Medicine. (2011). The health of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people: Building a foundation for better understanding. Washington, DC: National Institutes of Health/National Academy of Sciences.
   Google Scholar
• Kelleher, C. (2009). Minority stress and health: Implications for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and questioning (LGBTQ) young people. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 22, 373–379.
   Google Scholar
• Kenagy, G. P., & Bostwick, W. B. (2005). Health and social service needs of transgender people in Chicago. International Journal of Transgenderism, 8, 57–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J485v08n02_06
   Google Scholar
• Kosenko, K., Rintamaki, L., Raney, S., & Maness, K. (2013). Transgender patient perceptions of stigma in health care contexts. Medical Care, 51, 819–822. http://dx.doi.org/810.1097/MLR.1090b1013e31829fa31890d.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kussin-Shoptaw, A., Fletcher, J. B., & Reback, C. J. (2014, August). Physical and/or sexual abuse is associated with increased distress among transgender women. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Psychological Association, Washington, DC.
   Google Scholar
• Lombardi, E. (2008). Substance use treatment experiences of transgender/transsexual men and women. Journal of LGBT Health Research, 3, 37–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J463v03n02_05
   Google Scholar
• Magee, J. C., Bigelow, L., DeHaan, S., & Mustanski, B. S. (2012). Sexual health information seeking online: A mixed-methods study among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender young people. Health Education & Behavior, 39, 276–289. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1090198111401384
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melendez, R., Exner, T., Ehrhardt, A., Dodge B., Remien, R., Rotheram-Borus, M.-J. … National Institute of Mental Healthy Living Project Team. (2006). Health and health care among male-to-female transgender persons who are HIV positive. American Journal of Public Health, 96, 1034–1037. http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2004.042010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mottet, L., & Ohle, J. (2006). Transitioning our shelters: Making homeless shelters safe for transgender people. Journal of Poverty, 10, 77–101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J134v10n02_05
   Google Scholar
• Nadal, K. L., Davidoff, K. C., & Fujii-Doe, W. (2013). Transgender women and the sex work industry: Roots in systemic, institutional, and interpersonal discrimination. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 15, 169–183. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15299732.2014.867572
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nemoto, T., Operario, D., Keatley, J., Nguyen, H., & Sugano, E. (2005). Promoting health for transgender women: Transgender resources and neighborhood space (TRANS) program in San Francisco. American Journal of Public Health, 95, 382–384. http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2004.040501
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nemoto, T., Sausa, L. A., Operario, D., & Keatley, J. (2006). Need for HIV/AIDS education and intervention for MTF transgenders. Journal of Homosexuality, 51(1), 183–201. http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J082v51n01_09
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nuttbrock, L. A. (2012). Culturally competent substance abuse treatment with transgender persons. Journal of Addictive Diseases, 31, 236–241. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10550887.2012.694600
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Operario, D., Soma, T., & Underhill, K. (2008). Sex work and HIV status among transgender women: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 48, 97–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/QAI.0b013e31816e3971
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pinto, R. M., Melendez, R. M., & Spector, A. Y. (2008). Male-to-female transgender individuals building social support and capital from within a gender-focused network. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 20, 203–220. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10538720802235179
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pollio, D., Thompson, S., & North, C. (2000). Agency-based tracking of difficult-to-follow populations: Runaway and homeless youth programs in St. Louis, Missouri. Community Mental Health Journal, 36(3), 247–258. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/a:1001905114143
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poteat, T., German, D., & Kerrigan, D. (2013). Managing uncertainty: A grounded theory of stigma in transgender health care encounters. Social Science & Medicine, 84, 22–29. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.02.019
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rainie, L. (2010). Internet, broadband, and cell phone statistics. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center.
   Google Scholar
• Rapues, J., Wilson, E. C., Packer, T., Colfax, G. N., & Raymond, H. F. (2013). Correlates of HIV infection among transfemales, San Francisco, 2010: Results from a respondent-driven sampling study. American Journal of Public Health, 103(8), 1485–1492. from http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2012.301109
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reback, C. J. (1995). Constructing the outreach moment: Street interventions to women at risk. In B. Schneider & N. Stoller (Eds.), Women resisting AIDS: Feminist strategies of empowerment (pp. 170–191). Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Reback, C. J. (2014). Disparities in research and clinical treatment: Transgender women. Paper presented at the Social and Behavioral Sciences Research Network Conference, Los Angeles, CA.
   Google Scholar
• Reback, C. J., & Fletcher, J. B. (2014). HIV prevalence, substance use, and sexual risk behaviors among transgender women recruited through outreach. AIDS & Behavior, 18, 1359–1367. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10461-013-0657-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reisner, S. L., Mimiaga, M. J., Bland, S., Mayer, K. H., Perkovich, B., & Safren, S. A. (2009). HIV risk and social networks among male-to-female transgender sex workers in Boston, Massachusetts. Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 20, 373–386. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jana.2009.06.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reisner, S., Lloyd, J., & Baral, S. (2013). Technical report: The global health needs of transgender populations. Retrieved from http://www.aidstar-two.org/upload/AIDSTAR-Two-Transgender-Technical-Report_FINAL_09-30-13.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Rosser, B. R. S., Oakes, J. M., Bockting, W. O., & Miner, M. (2007). Capturing the social demographics of hidden sexual minorities: An Internet study of the transgender population in the United States. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 4, 50–64. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/srsp.2007.4.2.50
   Google Scholar
• Santos, G. M., Rapues, J., Wilson, E. C., Macias, O., Packer, T., Colfax, G., & Raymond, H. F. (2014). Alcohol and substance use among transgender women in San Francisco: Prevalence and association with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Drug and Alcohol Review, 33, 287–295. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/dar.12116
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schulden, J. D., Song, B., Barros, A., Mares-DelGrasso, A., Martin, C. W., Ramon, R. … Heffelfinger, J. D. (2008). Rapid HIV testing in transgender communities by community-based organizations in three cities. Public Health Reports, 123(Suppl. 3), 101–114. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/25682060.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sevelius, J. M., Keatley, J., & Gutierrez-Mock, L. (2011). HIV/AIDS programming in the United States: Considerations affecting transgender women and girls. Women's Health Issues, 21(6), S278–S282. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.whi.2011.08.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sevelius, J., Patouhas, E., Keatley, J., & Johnson, M. (2014). Barriers and facilitators to engagement and retention in care among transgender women living with human immunodeficiency virus. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 47, 5–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12160-013-9565-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shapiro, E. (2004). “Trans”cending barriers: Transgender organizing on the Internet. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services, 16, 165–179. http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J041v16n03_11
   Google Scholar
• Shipherd, J. C., Green, K. E., & Abramovitz, S. (2010). Transgender clients: Identifying and minimizing barriers to mental health treatment. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health, 14, 94–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19359701003622875
   Google Scholar
• Singh, A. A. (2013). Transgender youth of color and resilience: Negotiating oppression and finding support. Sex Roles, 68, 690–702. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11199-012-0149-z
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spicer, S. S. (2010). Healthcare needs of the transgender homeless population. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health, 14, 320–339. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19359705.2010.505844
   Google Scholar
• Thornhill, L., & Klein, P. (2010). Creating environments of care with transgender communities. Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 21, 230–239. http://dx.doi.org/org/10.1016/j.jana.2009.11.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• United Nations Development Program. (2013). Transgender health and human rights. New York, NY: United Nations.
   Google Scholar
• Williamson, C. (2010). Providing care to transgender persons: A clinical approach to primary care, hormones, and HIV management. Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 21, 221–229. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jana.2010.02.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolf, E. C. M., & Dewa, B. J. (2012). Understanding risk factors contributing to substance use among MTF transgender persons. Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling, 6, 237–256. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15538605.2012.727743
   Google Scholar
• Yancey, A. K., Ortega, A. N., & Kumanyika, S. K. (2006). Effective recruitment and retention of minority research participants. Annual Review of Public Health, 27, 1–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.publhealth.27.021405.102113
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar