Neutrophil autophagy and NETosis in COVID-19: perspectives

References

• World Health Organization. Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard data table. [Cited 2022 May 1]. https://covid19.who.int/.
   Google Scholar
• Wang D, Hu B, Hu C, et al. Clinical characteristics of 138 hospitalized patients with 2019 novel coronavirus–infected pneumonia in Wuhan, China. Jama. 2020;323(11):1061–1069.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carvalho T, Krammer F, Iwasaki A. The first 12 months of COVID-19: a timeline of immunological insights. Nat Rev Immunol. 2021;21(4):245–256.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mallah SI, Ghorab OK, Al-Salmi S, et al. COVID-19: breaking down a global health crisis. Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob. 2021;20(1):35.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aleksova A, Gagno G, Sinagra G, et al. Effects of SARS-CoV-2 on cardiovascular system: the dual role of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as the virus receptor and homeostasis regulator-review. Int J Mol Sci. 2021:22. DOI:10.3390/ijms23010022.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang R, Sun C, Chen X, et al. COVID-19-related brain injury: the potential role of ferroptosis. J Inflamm Res. 2022;15:2181–2198.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borges L, Pithon-Curi TC, Curi R, et al. COVID-19 and neutrophils: the relationship between hyperinflammation and neutrophil extracellular traps. Mediators Inflamm. 2020;2020:8829674.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chargui A, El May MV. Autophagy mediates neutrophil responses to bacterial infection. Apmis. 2014;122(11):1047–1058.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnes BJ, Adrover JM, Baxter-Stoltzfus A, et al. Targeting potential drivers of COVID-19: neutrophil extracellular traps. J Exp Med. 2020;217(6). DOI:10.1084/jem.20200652.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang B, Zhou X, Zhu C, et al. Immune phenotyping based on the neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio and IgG level predicts disease severity and outcome for patients with COVID-19. Front Mol Biosci. 2020;7:157.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shi H, Zuo Y, Yalavarthi S, et al. Neutrophil calprotectin identifies severe pulmonary disease in COVID-19. J Leukoc Biol. 2021;109(1):67–72.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manne BK, Denorme F, Middleton EA, et al. Platelet gene expression and function in patients with COVID-19. Blood. 2020;136(11):1317–1329.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonaventura A, Vecchié A, Dagna L, et al. Endothelial dysfunction and immunothrombosis as key pathogenic mechanisms in COVID-19. Nat Rev Immunol. 2021;21(5):319–329.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Filippi M-D. Neutrophil transendothelial migration: updates and new perspectives. Blood. 2019;133(20):2149–2158.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morris G, Bortolasci CC, Puri BK, et al. Preventing the development of severe COVID-19 by modifying immunothrombosis. Life Sci. 2021;264:118617.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jin Y, Ji W, Yang H, et al. Endothelial activation and dysfunction in COVID-19: from basic mechanisms to potential therapeutic approaches. Signal Transduct Target Ther. 2020;5(1):293.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans PC, Rainger GE, Mason JC, et al. Endothelial dysfunction in COVID-19: a position paper of the ESC working group for atherosclerosis and vascular biology, and the ESC council of basic cardiovascular science. Cardiovasc Res. 2020;116(14):2177–2184.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller K, McGrath ME, Hu Z, et al. Coronavirus interactions with the cellular autophagy machinery. Autophagy. 2020;16(12):2131–2139.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mijaljica D, Klionsky DJ. Autophagy/virophagy: a “disposal strategy” to combat COVID-19. Autophagy. 2020;16(12):2271–2272.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitroulis I, Kourtzelis I, Kambas K, et al. Regulation of the autophagic machinery in human neutrophils. Eur J Immunol. 2010;40(5):1461–1472.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sidaway P. Neutrophils: neutrophil differentiation is autophagy dependent. Nat Rev Immunol. 2017;17(11):662.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nirmala JG, Lopus M. Cell death mechanisms in eukaryotes. Cell Biol Toxicol. 2020;36(2):145–164.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gupta S, Sahni V. The intriguing commonality of NETosis between COVID-19 & Periodontal disease. Med Hypotheses. 2020;144:109968.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shibutani ST, Saitoh T, Nowag H, et al. Autophagy and autophagy-related proteins in the immune system. Nat Immunol. 2015;16(10):1014–1024.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shrestha S, Lee JM, Hong C-W. Autophagy in neutrophils. Korean J Physiol Pharmacol. 2020;24(1):1–10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mizushima N. The ATG conjugation systems in autophagy. Curr Opin Cell Biol. 2020;63:1–10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galluzzi L, Green DR. Autophagy-independent functions of the autophagy machinery. Cell. 2019;177(7):1682–1699.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang N, Shen H-M. Targeting the endocytic pathway and autophagy process as a novel therapeutic strategy in COVID-19. Int J Biol Sci. 2020;16(10):1724–1731.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sargazi S, Sheervalilou R, Rokni M, et al. The role of autophagy in controlling SARS-CoV-2 infection: an overview on virophagy-mediated molecular drug targets. Cell Biol Int. 2021;45(8):1599–1612.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Choi Y, Bowman JW, Jung JU. Autophagy during viral infection — a double-edged sword. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2018;16(6):341–354.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• García-Pérez BE, González-Rojas JA, Salazar MI, et al. Taming the Autophagy as a strategy for treating COVID-19. Cells. 2020;9(12):2679.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmad L, Mostowy S, Sancho-Shimizu V. Autophagy-virus interplay: from cell biology to human disease. Front Cell Dev Biol. 2018;6:155.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang R, Zhu Y, and Zhao J, et al. Autophagy Promotes Replication of Influenza A Virus In Vitro. J Virol. 2019;93(4):e01984–18.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin Y, Wu C, Wang X, et al. Glucosamine promotes hepatitis B virus replication through its dual effects in suppressing autophagic degradation and inhibiting MTORC1 signaling. Autophagy. 2020;16(3):548–561.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cottam EM, Whelband MC, Wileman T. Coronavirus NSP6 restricts autophagosome expansion. Autophagy. 2014;10(8):1426–1441.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Angelini MM, Akhlaghpour M, Neuman BW, et al. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus nonstructural proteins 3, 4, and 6 induce double-membrane vesicles. mBio. 2013;4(4). DOI:10.1128/mBio.00524-13
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snijder EJ, van Tol H, Roos N, et al. Non-structural proteins 2 and 3 interact to modify host cell membranes during the formation of the arterivirus replication complex. J Gen Virol. 2001;82(5):985–994.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Oudshoorn D, Rijs K, Limpens R, et al. Expression and cleavage of middle east respiratory syndrome coronavirus nsp3-4 polyprotein induce the formation of double-membrane vesicles that mimic those associated with coronaviral RNA replication. mBio. 2017;8(6). DOI:10.1128/mBio.01658-17.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cottam EM, Maier HJ, Manifava M, et al. Coronavirus nsp6 proteins generate autophagosomes from the endoplasmic reticulum via an omegasome intermediate. Autophagy. 2011;7(11):1335–1347.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gassen NC, Niemeyer D, Muth D, et al. SKP2 attenuates autophagy through Beclin1-ubiquitination and its inhibition reduces MERS-Coronavirus infection. Nat Commun. 2019;10(1):5770.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mohamud Y, Xue YC, Liu H, et al. The papain-like protease of coronaviruses cleaves ULK1 to disrupt host autophagy. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2021;540:75–82.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gassen NC, Papies J, Bajaj T, et al. SARS-CoV-2-mediated dysregulation of metabolism and autophagy uncovers host-targeting antivirals. Nat Commun. 2021;12(1):3818.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh K, Chen Y-C, Hassanzadeh S, et al. Network analysis and transcriptome profiling identify autophagic and mitochondrial dysfunctions in SARS-CoV-2 infection. Front Genet. 2021;12:599261.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miao G, Zhao H, Li Y, et al. ORF3a of the COVID-19 virus SARS-CoV-2 blocks HOPS complex-mediated assembly of the SNARE complex required for autolysosome formation. Dev Cell. 2021;56(4):427–442.e5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao Z, Lu K, Mao B, et al. The interplay between emerging human coronavirus infections and autophagy. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2021;10(1):196–205.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouhaddou M, Memon D, Meyer B, et al. The Global Phosphorylation Landscape of SARS-CoV-2 Infection. Cell. 2020;182(3):685–712.e19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sawadogo SA, Dighero-Kemp B, Ouédraogo -D-D, et al. How NETosis could drive “Post-COVID-19 syndrome” among survivors. Immunol Lett. 2020;228:35–37.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Papayannopoulos V. Neutrophil extracellular traps in immunity and disease. Nat Rev Immunol. 2018;18(2):134–147.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cicco S, Cicco G, Racanelli V, et al. Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) and damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs): two potential targets for COVID-19 treatment. Mediators Inflamm. 2020;2020:7527953.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vorobjeva NV, Chernyak BV. NETosis: molecular mechanisms, role in physiology and pathology. Biochemistry (Mosc). 2020;85(10):1178–1190.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delgado-Rizo V, Martínez-Guzmán MA, Iñiguez-Gutierrez L, et al. Neutrophil extracellular traps and its implications in inflammation: an overview. Front Immunol. 2017;8:81.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Metzler KD, Goosmann C, Lubojemska A, et al. A myeloperoxidase-containing complex regulates neutrophil elastase release and actin dynamics during NETosis. Cell Rep. 2014;8(3):883–896.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park HH, Park W, Lee YY, et al. Bioinspired DNase-I-coated melanin-like nanospheres for modulation of infection-associated NETosis dysregulation. Adv Sci (Weinh). 2020;7(23):2001940.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yousefi S, Simon D, Stojkov D, et al. In vivo evidence for extracellular DNA trap formation. Cell Death Dis. 2020;11(4):300.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chauhan AJ, Wiffen LJ, Brown TP. COVID-19: a collision of complement, coagulation and inflammatory pathways. J Thromb Haemost. 2020;18(9):2110–2117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Porto BN, Stein RT. Neutrophil extracellular traps in pulmonary diseases: too much of a good thing? Front Immunol. 2016;7:311.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Obermayer A, Jakob L-M, Haslbauer JD, et al. Neutrophil extracellular traps in fatal COVID-19-associated lung injury. Dis Markers. 2021;2021:5566826.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arcanjo A, Logullo J, Menezes CCB, et al. The emerging role of neutrophil extracellular traps in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (COVID-19). Sci Rep. 2020;10(1):19630.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bendib I, de Chaisemartin L, Granger V, et al. Neutrophil extracellular traps are elevated in patients with pneumonia-related acute respiratory distress syndrome. Anesthesiology. 2019;130(4):581–591.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masso-Silva JA, Moshensky A, and Lam MTY, et al. Increased peripheral blood neutrophil activation phenotypes and NETosis in critically ill COVID-19 patients: a case series and review of the literature. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;74(3):479–489.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parackova Z, Zentsova I, Bloomfield M, et al. Disharmonic inflammatory signatures in COVID-19: augmented neutrophils’ but impaired monocytes’ and dendritic cells’ responsiveness. Cells. 2020;9(10):2206.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamam HJ, Palaniyar P. Post-translational modifications in NETosis and NETs-mediated diseases. Biomolecules. 2019;9(8):369.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carminita E, Crescence L, Panicot-Dubois L, et al. Role of neutrophils and NETs in animal models of thrombosis. Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23(3):1411.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skendros P, Mitsios A, Chrysanthopoulou A, et al. Complement and tissue factor–enriched neutrophil extracellular traps are key drivers in COVID-19 immunothrombosis. J Clin Invest. 2020;130(11):6151–6157.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huckriede J, Anderberg SB, Morales A, et al. Evolution of NETosis markers and DAMPs have prognostic value in critically ill COVID-19 patients. Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):15701.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bautista-Becerril B, Campi-Caballero R, Sevilla-Fuentes S, et al. Immunothrombosis in COVID-19: implications of neutrophil extracellular traps. Biomolecules. 2021;11(5):694.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Bont CM, Boelens WC, Pruijn GJM. NETosis, complement, and coagulation: a triangular relationship. Cell Mol Immunol. 2019;16(1):19–27.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kambas K, Mitroulis I, Ritis K. The emerging role of neutrophils in thrombosis—the journey of TF through NETs. Front Immunol. 2012;3:385.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gupta S, Kaplan MJ. The role of neutrophils and NETosis in autoimmune and renal diseases. Nat Rev Nephrol. 2016;12(7):402–413.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yu Y, Sun B. Autophagy-mediated regulation of neutrophils and clinical applications. Burns Trauma. 2020;8:tkz001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Itakura A, McCarty OJT. Pivotal role for the mTOR pathway in the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps via regulation of autophagy. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2013;305(3):C348–54.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharma A, Simonson TJ, Jondle CN, et al. Mincle-mediated neutrophil extracellular trap formation by regulation of Autophagy. J Infect Dis. 2017;215(7):1040–1048.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Remijsen Q, Vanden Berghe T, Wirawan E, et al. Neutrophil extracellular trap cell death requires both autophagy and superoxide generation. Cell Res. 2011;21(2):290–304.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suzuki E, Maverakis E, Sarin R, et al. T cell–independent mechanisms associated with neutrophil extracellular trap formation and selective Autophagy in IL-17A–mediated epidermal hyperplasia. J Immunol. 2016;197(11):4403–4412.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karna P, Zughaier S, Pannu V, et al. Induction of reactive oxygen species-mediated autophagy by a novel microtubule-modulating agent. J Biol Chem. 2010;285(24):18737–18748.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yun HR, Jo YH, Kim J, et al. Roles of Autophagy in oxidative stress. Int J Mol Sci. 2020;21(9):3289.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skendros P, Papagoras C, Mitroulis I, et al. Autoinflammation: lessons from the study of familial mediterranean fever. J Autoimmun. 2019;104:102305.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bello-Perez M, Sola I, Novoa B, et al. Canonical and Noncanonical Autophagy as Potential Targets for COVID-19. Cells. 2020;9(7):1619.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liang X, Liu L, Wang Y, et al. Autophagy-driven NETosis is a double-edged sword – review. Biomed Pharmacother. 2020;126:110065.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mohammed BM, Fisher BJ, Kraskauskas D, et al. Vitamin C: a novel regulator of neutrophil extracellular trap formation. Nutrients. 2013;5(8):3131–3150.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skendros P, Chrysanthopoulou A, Rousset F, et al. Regulated in development and DNA damage responses 1 (REDD1) links stress with IL-1β–mediated familial Mediterranean fever attack through autophagy-driven neutrophil extracellular traps. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2017;140(5):1378–1387.e13.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Angelidou I, Chrysanthopoulou A, Mitsios A, et al. REDD1/Autophagy pathway is associated with neutrophil-driven il-1β inflammatory response in active ulcerative colitis. J Immunol. 2018;200(12):3950–3961.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hui X, Zhang L, Cao L, et al. SARS-CoV-2 promote autophagy to suppress type I interferon response. Signal Transduct Target Ther. 2021;6(1):180.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang M, Cao R, Zhang L, et al. Remdesivir and chloroquine effectively inhibit the recently emerged novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in vitro. Cell Res. 2020;30(3):269–271.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Venditto VJ, Haydar D, Abdel-Latif A, et al. Immunomodulatory effects of azithromycin revisited: potential applications to COVID-19. Front Immunol. 2021;12:574425.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gautret P, Lagier J-C, Parola P, et al. Hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin as a treatment of COVID-19: results of an open-label non-randomized clinical trial. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020;56(1):105949.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li S, Liu W, Chen Y, et al. Transcriptome analysis of cepharanthine against a SARS-CoV-2-related coronavirus. Brief Bioinform. 2021;22(2):1378–1386.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Otręba M, Kośmider L, Rzepecka-Stojko A. Antiviral activity of chlorpromazine, fluphenazine, perphenazine, prochlorperazine, and thioridazine towards RNA-viruses. A review. Eur J Pharmacol. 2020;887:173553.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stip E. Psychiatry and COVID-19: the role of chlorpromazine. Can J Psychiatry. 2020;65(10):739–740.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hidvégi M, Nichelatti M. Bacillus calmette-guerin vaccination policy and consumption of ammonium chloride-enriched confectioneries may be factors reducing COVID-19 death rates in Europe. Isr Med Assoc J. 2020;22:501–504.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang J, Chen J, Shi D, et al. Porcine deltacoronavirus enters cells via two pathways: a protease-mediated one at the cell surface and another facilitated by cathepsins in the endosome. J Biol Chem. 2019;294(25):9830–9843.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burkard C, Verheije MH, Haagmans BL, et al. ATP1A1-mediated Src signaling inhibits coronavirus entry into host cells. J Virol. 2015;89(8):4434–4448.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stakos D, Skendros P, Konstantinides S, et al. Traps N‘ clots: NET-mediated thrombosis and related diseases. Thromb Haemost. 2020;120(3):373–383.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee YY, Park HH, Park W, et al. Long-acting nanoparticulate DNase-1 for effective suppression of SARS-CoV-2-mediated neutrophil activities and cytokine storm. Biomaterials. 2021;267:120389.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu F, Li L, Xu M, et al. Prognostic value of interleukin-6, C-reactive protein, and procalcitonin in patients with COVID-19. J Clin Virol. 2020;127:104370.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tian W, Jiang W, Yao J, et al. Predictors of mortality in hospitalized COVID-19 patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Med Virol. 2020;92(10):1875–1883.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cavalier E, Guiot J, Lechner K, et al. Circulating nucleosomes as potential markers to monitor COVID-19 disease progression. Front Mol Biosci. 2021;8:600881.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gómez RM, López Ortiz AO, Schattner M. Platelets and extracellular traps in infections. Platelets. 2021;32(3):305–313.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sung PS, Hsieh SL. C-type lectins and extracellular vesicles in virus-induced NETosis. J Biomed Sci. 2021;28(1):46.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Njeim R, Azar WS, Fares AH, et al. NETosis contributes to the pathogenesis of diabetes and its complications. J Mol Endocrinol. 2020;65(4):R65–r76.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gavriilidis E, Antoniadou C, Chrysanthopoulou A, et al. Combined administration of inhaled DNase, baricitinib and tocilizumab as rescue treatment in COVID-19 patients with severe respiratory failure. Clin Immunol. 2022;238:109016.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kocak M, Ezazi Erdi S, and Jorba G, et al. Targeting autophagy in disease: established and new strategies. Autophagy. 2021;18(3):473–495.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calender A, Israel-Biet D, Valeyre D, et al. Modeling potential autophagy pathways in COVID-19 and sarcoidosis. Trends Immunol. 2020;41(10):856–859.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang J, Ren X-R, Piao H, et al. Niclosamide-induced Wnt signaling inhibition in colorectal cancer is mediated by autophagy. Biochem J. 2019;476(3):535–546.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kindrachuk J, Ork B, Hart BJ, et al. Antiviral potential of ERK/MAPK and PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling modulation for Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection as identified by temporal kinome analysis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2015;59(2):1088–1099.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang CC, Wu CJ, and Chien CY, et al. Green tea polyphenol catechins inhibit coronavirus replication and potentiate the adaptive immunity and Autophagy-dependent protective mechanism to improve acute lung injury in mice. Antioxidants (Basel). 2021;10(6):928.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Guo X, Zhang M, Zhang X, et al. Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus induces autophagy to benefit its replication. Viruses. 2017;9(3):53.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Egan DF, Chun MH, Vamos M, et al. Small molecule inhibition of the Autophagy kinase ULK1 and identification of ULK1 substrates. Mol Cell. 2015;59(2):285–297.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petherick KJ, Conway OJL, Mpamhanga C, et al. Pharmacological inhibition of ULK1 kinase blocks mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR)-dependent autophagy. J Biol Chem. 2015;290(18):11376–11383.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu P-F, Tsai K-L, Hsu C-J, et al. Drug repurposing screening identifies tioconazole as an ATG4 inhibitor that suppresses autophagy and sensitizes cancer cells to chemotherapy. Theranostics. 2018;8(3):830–845.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhu H, Chen CZ, Sakamuru S, et al. Mining of high throughput screening database reveals AP-1 and autophagy pathways as potential targets for COVID-19 therapeutics. Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):6725.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dikic I, Elazar Z. Mechanism and medical implications of mammalian autophagy. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2018;19(6):349–364.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xue Z, Zhang Z, Liu H, et al. lincRNA-Cox2 regulates NLRP3 inflammasome and autophagy mediated neuroinflammation. Cell Death Differ. 2019;26(1):130–145.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bilezikian JP, Bikle D, Hewison M, et al. MECHANISMS IN ENDOCRINOLOGY: vitamin D and COVID-19. Eur J Endocrinol. 2020;183(5):R133–r147.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar