The toxicology of zinc chloride smoke producing bombs and screens

References

• Nicholson DG. Chemical agents as screening smokes. J Chem Educ. 1943;20:499–505.
   Google Scholar
• US Patent. Publication number 3329624 A [Internet]. [cited 2016 Jan 19]. Available from: www.google.com/patents/US3329624
   Google Scholar
• United States. IIT Research Institute. Physical and chemical characterization of fog oil smoke and hexachloroethane smokes. Chicago (IL): IIT Research Institute; 1980.
   Google Scholar
• National Research Council (US) Subcommittee on Military Smokes and Obscurants. Toxicity of military smokes and obscurants. Vol. 1. Washington (DC): National Academies Press; 1997. Chapter 5, Hexachloroethane smoke; p. 127–159.
   Google Scholar
• Whitaker PH. Radiological appearances of the chest following partial asphyxiation by a smoke screen. Br J Radiol. 1945;18:396–397.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lumsden RB, Weir CD. Subglottic stenosis after high concentration of screening smoke. Br Med J. 1945;1:554–555.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans EH. Casualties following exposure to zinc chloride smoke. Lancet. 1945;246:368–370.
   Google Scholar
• Fitzpatrick WJ, Yeager LB. Respiratory complications from military screening smoke bomb. Q Bull Northwest Univ Med Sch. 1952;26:313–314.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pare CM, Sandler M. Smoke-bomb pneumonitis: description of a case. J R Army Med Corps. 1954;100:320–322.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Linderholm H, Strandberg O. Lungskador i samband med rökgasexposition [Lung injury associated with smoke explosion]. Tidskr Mil Halsov. 1956; 81:229–241. Swedish.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Johnson FA, Stonehill RB. Chemical pneumonitis from inhalation of zinc chloride. Dis Chest. 1961;40:619–624.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hoekstra JA. De gevolgen van blootstelling aan de inhoud van rookpotten [The effects of smoke bomb exposure]. Nederlands Militair Geneeskundig Tijdschrift. 1963;16:141–147. Dutch.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Milliken JA, Waugh D, Kadish ME. Acute interstitial pulmonary fibrosis caused by a smoke bomb. Can Med Assoc J. 1963;88:36–39.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Macaulay MB, Mant AK. Smoke-bomb poisoning. A fatal case following the inhalation of zinc chloride smoke. J R Army Med Corps. 1964;110:27–32.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schmahl K. Klinik der Zinknebelvergiftung [Clinical features of zinc fog poisoning]. Pneumonologie. 1974;150:161–169. German.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schenker MB, Speizer FE, Taylor JO. Acute upper respiratory symptoms resulting from exposure to zinc chloride aerosol. Environ Res. 1981;25:317–324.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang YT, Lee LK, Poh SC. Phosgene poisoning from a smoke grenade. Eur J Respir Dis. 1987;70:126–128.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Matarese SL, Matthews JI. Zinc chloride (smoke bomb) inhalational lung injury. Chest. 1986;89:308–309.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hjortsø E, Qvist J, Bud MI, et al. ARDS after accidental inhalation of zinc chloride smoke. Intensive Care Med. 1988;14:17–24.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Homma S, Jones R, Qvist J, et al. Pulmonary vascular lesions in the adult respiratory distress syndrome caused by inhalation of zinc chloride smoke: a morphometric study. Hum Pathol. 1992;23:45–50.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harry P, Caubet A, Durand G, et al. Intoxications aiguës par inhalation de chlorures de zinc et d’aluminium (12 observations) [Acute poisoning by inhalation of zinc and aluminum chloride (12 cases)]. J Toxicol Clin Exp. 1989;9:359–362. French.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Allen MB, Crisp A, Snook N, et al. ‘Smoke-bomb’ pneumonitis. Respir Med. 1992;86:165–616.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freitag A, Caduff B. ARDS durch militärische Zinknebelexposition [ARDS resulting from military zinc fog exposure]. Schweiz Med Wochenschr. 1996;126:1006–1010. German.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Holmes PS. Pneumomediastinum associated with inhalation of white smoke. Mil Med. 1999;164:751–752.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zerahn B, Kofoed-Enevoldsen A, Jensen BV, et al. Pulmonary damage after modest exposure to zinc chloride smoke. Respir Med. 1999;93:885–890.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pettilä V, Takkunen O, Tukiainen P. Zinc chloride smoke inhalation: a rare cause of severe acute respiratory distress syndrome. Intensive Care Med. 2000;26:215–217.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hsu HH, Tzao C, Chang WC, et al. Zinc chloride (smoke bomb) inhalation lung injury: clinical presentations, high-resolution CT findings, and pulmonary function test results. Chest. 2005;127:2064–2071.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loh CH, Chang YW, Liou SH, et al. Case report: hexachloroethane smoke inhalation: a rare cause of severe hepatic injuries. Environ Health Perspect. 2006;114:763–765.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loh CH, Liou SH, Chang YW, et al. Hepatic injuries of hexachloroethane smoke inhalation: the first analytical epidemiological study. Toxicology. 2008;247:119–122.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang KL, Chen CW, Chu SJ, et al. Systemic inflammation caused by white smoke inhalation in a combat exercise. Chest. 2008;133:722–728.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chian CF, Wu CP, Chen CW, et al. Acute respiratory distress syndrome after zinc chloride inhalation: survival after extracorporeal life support and corticosteroid treatment. Am J Crit Care. 2010;19:86–90.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chou CH, Kao TW, Liou SH, et al. Hematological abnormalities of acute exposure to hexachloroethane smoke inhalation. Inhal Toxicol. 2010;22:486–492.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gil F, Pla A, Hernández AF, et al. A fatal case following exposure to zinc chloride and hexachloroethane from a smoke bomb in a fire simulation at a school. Clin Toxicol. 2008;46:563–565.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yilmaz B, Yeşiloğlu N, Firincioğullari R, et al. Awful face of the war-impacted smoke bomb capsule in the face and systemic toxicity: reports from the conflict in Syria. J Craniofac Surg. 2015;26:167–169.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karlsson N. Poisoning from smoke grenades is not due to phosgene. Eur Respir J. 1988;1:575.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meinesz AF, Wijkstra PJ, Zijlstra JG, et al. Van de poliomyelitisepidemie naar de oprichting van beademingscentra, intensivecareafdelingen en centra voor thuisbeademing [From the poliomyelitisepidemia to establishing ventilation centers, intensive care units and centers for homeventilation]. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. 2006;150:444–449. Dutch.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Slutsky AS. History of mechanical ventilation. from vesalius to ventilator-induced lung injury. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2015;191:1106–1115.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eade NR, Taussig LM, Marks MI. Hydrocarbon pneumonitis. Pediatrics. 1974;54:351–357.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balme KH, Zar H, Swift DK, et al. The efficacy of prophylactic antibiotics in the management of children with kerosene-associated pneumonitis: a double-blind randomised controlled trial. Clin Toxicol. 2015;53:789–796.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldstein RH, Fine A. Fibrotic reactions in the lung: the activation of the lung fibroblast. Exp Lung Res. 1986;11:245–261.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karlsson N, Cassel G, Fängmark I, et al. A comparative study of the acute inhalation toxicity of smoke from TiO2-hexachloroethane and Zn-hexachloroethane pyrotechnic mixtures. Arch Toxicol. 1986;59:160–166.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marrs TC, Clifford WE, Colgrave HF. Pathological changes produced by exposure of rabbits and rats to smokes from mixtures of hexachloroethane and zinc oxide. Toxicol Lett. 1983;19:247–252.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reaves WW, Carlon KG. Comparison of dechlorane and hexachloroethane in smokescreen compositions. CRDL Special Publication, AD 2663645 [Internet]. 1961 [cited 2016 Jan 27]. Available from: http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=AD026636449
   Google Scholar
• Marrs TC, Colgrave HF, Edginton JA, et al. The repeated dose toxicity of a zinc oxide/hexachloroethane smoke. Arch Toxicol. 1988;62:123–132.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Zinc chloride fume [Internet]. [updated 2014 Dec 4; cited 2016 Apr 21]. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/idlh/7646857.html
   Google Scholar
• Ardran GM. The pulmonary effects of toxic gases and smokes; an experimental radiographic investigation. Br J Radiol. 1950;23:107–115.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mico BA, Pohl LR. Reductive oxygenation of carbon tetrachloride: trichloromethylperoxyl radical as a possible intermediate in the conversion of carbon tetrachloride to electrophilic chlorine. Arch Biochem Biophys. 1983;225:596–609.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farber JL, Gerson RJ. Mechanisms of cell injury with hepatotoxic chemicals. Pharmacol Rev. 1984;36:71S–75S.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cullumbine H. The toxicity of screening smokes. J R Army Med Corps. 1957;103:119–122.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar