Mass Shootings and Routine Activities Theory: The Impact of Motivation, Target Suitability, and Capable Guardianship on Fatalities and Injuries

References

• Agnew, R. (1992). Foundation for a general strain theory of crime and delinquency. Criminology, 30(1), 47–87. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1992.tb01093.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Associated Press. (2017, June 9). Supermarket massacre shooter’s final tweet: Goodbye humans … I’ll miss you. https://www.pennlive.com/news/2017/06/supermarket_massacre_shooters.html
   Google Scholar
• Blair, J. P., & Schweit, K. W. (2014). A study of active shooter incidents in the United States between 2000 and 2013. US Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation.
   Google Scholar
• Blau, B. M., Gorry, D. H., & Wade, C. (2016). Guns, laws and public shootings in the United States. Applied Economics, 48(49), 4732–4746. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2016.1164821
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brantingham, P., & Brantingham, P. (1984). Patterns in crime. Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Calhoun, F. S., & Weston, S. W. (2015). Perspectives on threat management. Journal of Threat Assessment and Management, 2(3–4), 258–267. https://doi.org/10.1037/tam0000056
   Google Scholar
• Capellan, J. A. (2015). Lone wolf terrorist or deranged shooter? A study of ideological active shooter events in the United States, 1970–2014. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 38(6), 395–413. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2015.1008341
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Capellan, J. A., & Gomez, S. P. (2018). Change and stability in offender, behaviors, and incident-level characteristics of mass public shootings in the United States, 1984-2015. Journal of Investigative Psychology of Offender Profiles, 15(1), 51–72. https://doi.org/10.1002/jip.1491
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Capellan, J. A., & Jiao, A. Y. (2019). Deconstructing mass public shootings: Exploring opportunities for intervention. Rockefeller Institute of Government, Regional Gun Violence Research Consortium.
   Google Scholar
• Capellan, J. A., & Silva, J. R. (2019). An investigation of mass public shooting attacks against government targets in the United States. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2018.1551294
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ciyou, B. L. (2018). Gun laws by State: Reciprocity and gun laws quick reference guide. Peritus Holdings, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Clarke, R. V. (1980). Situational crime prevention: Theory and practice. British Journal of Criminology, 20(2), 136–147. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.bjc.a047153
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clarke, R. V. (1992). Situational crime prevention: Successful case studies. Harrow & Heston.
   Google Scholar
• Clarke, R. V., & Newman, G. R. (2006). Outsmarting the terrorists. ABCCLIO Praeger Security International.
   Google Scholar
• Clear, T. R. (2010). Policy and evidence: The challenge to the American Society of Criminology: 2009 presidential address to the American Society of Criminology. Criminology, 48(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2010.00178.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, L. E., & Felson, M. (1979). Social change and crime rate trends: A routine activity approach. American Sociological Review, 44(4), 588–608. https://doi.org/10.2307/2094589
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cornish, D. B. (1994). The procedural analysis of offending and its relevance for situational prevention. Crime Prevention Studies, 3(1), 151–196. https://popcenter.asu.edu/sites/default/files/Library/CrimePrevention/Volume_03/06_cornish.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Dahl, E. J. (2011). The plots that failed: Intelligence lessons learned from unsuccessful terrorist attacks against the United States. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 34(8), 621–648. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2011.582628
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drake, C. J. (1998). The role of ideology in terrorists’ target selection. Terrorism & Political Violence, 10(2), 53–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546559808427457
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duwe, G., Kovandzic, T., & Moody, C. E. (2002). The impact of right-to-carry concealed firearm laws on mass public shootings. Homicide Studies, 6(4), 271–296. https://doi.org/10.1177/108876702237341
   Google Scholar
• Eck, J. E. (2018). Regulation for high-crime places: Theory, evidence, and principles. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 679(1), 106–120. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716218778764
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2016). Active shooter incidents in the United States in 2014 and 2015. US Department of Justice.
   Google Scholar
• Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2018). Active shooter incidents in the United States in 2016 and 2017. US Department of Justice.
   Google Scholar
• Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2019). Active shooter incidents in the United States in 2018. US Department of Justice.
   Google Scholar
• Fein, R. A., Vossekuil, B., Pollack, W. S., Borum, R., Modzeleski, W., & Reddy, M. (2004). Threat assessment in schools: A guide to managing threatening situations and to creating safe school climates. US Department of Education.
   Google Scholar
• Follman, M., Aronsen, G., & Pan, D. (2018). US mass shootings, 1982-2018: Data from Mother Jones’ investigation. Mother Jones. http://www.motherjones.com/politics/2012/12/mass-shootings-mother-jones-full-data/
   Google Scholar
• Fox, J. A., & DeLateur, M. J. (2014). Mass shootings in America: Moving beyond Newtown. Homicide Studies, 18(1), 125–145. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088767913510297
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fox, J. A., & Levin, J. (1998). Multiple homicide: Patterns of serial and mass murder. Crime and Justice, 23(1), 407–445. https://doi.org/10.1086/449274
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gill, P., Silver, J., Horgan, J., & Corner, E. (2017). Shooting alone: The pre‐attack experiences and behaviors of US solo mass murderers. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 62(3), 710–714. https://doi.org/10.1111/1556-4029.13330
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gius, M. (2015). The impact of state and federal assault weapons bans on public mass shootings. Applied Economic Letters, 22(4), 281–284. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504851.2014.939367
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gottfredson, M. R., & Hirschi, T. (1990). A general theory of crime. Stanford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Groff, E. R., Weisburd, D., & Yang, S. M. (2010). Is it important to examine crime trends at a local “micro” level?: A longitudinal analysis of street to street variability in crime trajectories. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 26(1), 7–32. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-009-9081-y
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamm, M., & Spaaij, R. (2015). Lone wolf terrorism in America: Using knowledge of radicalization pathways to forge prevention strategies. US Department of Justice.
   Google Scholar
• Hollis, M. E., Felson, M., & Welsh, B. C. (2013). The capable guardian in routine activities theory: A theoretical and conceptual reappraisal. Crime Prevention and Community Safety, 15(1), 65–79. https://doi.org/10.1057/cpcs.2012.14
   Google Scholar
• Ingraham, C. (2018, February 27). Poll: For first time since Columbine, most Americans believe mass shootings can be stopped. The Denver Post. https://www.denverpost.com/2018/02/27/poll-massshootings-can-be-stopped/
   Google Scholar
• Kelly, R. (2012). Active shooter report: Recommendations and analysis for risk mitigation. New York City Police Department.
   Google Scholar
• Klein, B. R., Gruenewald, J., & Smith, B. L. (2017). Opportunity, group structure, temporal patterns, and successful outcomes of far-right terrorism incidents in the United States. Crime & Delinquency, 63(10), 1224–1249. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128716654925
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korsell, L. (2018). Regulating organized crime. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 679(1), 158–177. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716218782654
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krouse, W. J., & Richardson, D. J. (2015). Mass murder with firearms: Incidents and victims, 1999-2013. Congressional Research Service.
   Google Scholar
• Lankford, A. (2013). A comparative analysis of suicide terrorists and rampage, workplace, and school shooters in the United States from 1990 to 2010. Homicide Studies, 17(3), 255–274. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088767912462033
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lankford, A. (2015). Mass shooters in the USA, 1966–2010: Differences between attackers who live and die. Justice Quarterly, 32(2), 360–379. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2013.806675
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lankford, A. (2016a). Are America’s public mass shooters unique? A comparative analysis of offenders in the United States and other countries. International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, 40(2), 171–183. https://doi.org/10.1080/01924036.2015.1105144
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lankford, A. (2016b). Fame-seeking rampage shooters: Initial findings and empirical predictions. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 27(2), 122–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2016.02.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lankford, A. (2016c). Public mass shooters and firearms: A cross-national study of 171 countries. Violence and Victims, 31(2), 187–199. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-15-00093
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lankford, A. (2018). Identifying potential mass shooters and suicide terrorists with warning signs of suicide, perceived victimization, and desires for attention or fame. Journal of Personality Assessment, 100(5), 471–482. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2018.1436063
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lankford, A., & Hakim, N. (2011). From Columbine to Palestine: A comparative analysis of rampage shooters in the United States and volunteer suicide bombers in the Middle East. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 16(2), 98–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2010.12.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lankford, A., & Madfis, E. (2018). Don’t name them, don’t show them, but report everything else: A pragmatic proposal for denying mass killers the attention they seek and deterring future offenders. American Behavioral Scientist, 62(2), 260–279. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764217730854
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department. (2018). LVMPD criminal investigative report of the 1 October mass casualty shooting.
   Google Scholar
• Lemieux, F. (2014). Effect of gun culture and firearm laws on gun violence and mass shootings in the United States: A multi-level quantitative analysis. International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences, 9(1), 74–93. https://safetennesseeproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/effect-of-gun-culture-and-firearm-laws-on-gun-violence-and-mass-shootings-in-the-united-states-a-multi-level-quantitative-analysis.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Mandala, M., & Freilich, J. D. (2017). Preventing successful assassination attacks by terrorists: An environmental criminology approach. Journal of Criminological Research, Policy and Practice, 3(3), 173–191. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCRPP-09-2016-0022
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mass Shooting Tracker. (2019). U.S. mass shootings. www.massshootingtracker.org
   Google Scholar
• Merton, R. (1938). Social structure and anomie. American Sociological Review, 3(5), 672–682. https://doi.org/10.2307/2084686
   Google Scholar
• Morse, D. (2018, October 20). Maryland youth, 18, charged after allegedly threatening to ‘shoot up’ school. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/public-safety/maryland-youth-18-charged-after-allegedly-threatening-to-shoot-up-school-charged/2018/10/20/5f8f456e-d499-11e8-b2d2-f397227b43f0_story.html
   Google Scholar
• Mullen, P. E. (2004). The autogenic (self‐generated) massacre. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 22(3), 311–323. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.564
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nacos, B. L. (2007). Mass-mediated terrorism: The central role of the media in terrorism and counterterrorism. Rowman and Littlefield.
   Google Scholar
• National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism (START). (2018). Global terrorism database. US Department of Homeland Security.
   Google Scholar
• Newman, K. S., Fox, C., Roth, W., Mehta, J., & Harding, D. (2004). Rampage: The social roots of school shootings. Basic Books.
   Google Scholar
• O’Neill, J. P., Miller, J. J., & Waters, J. R. (2016). Active shooter: Recommendations and analysis for risk mitigation. New York City Police Department.
   Google Scholar
• Osborne, J., & Capellan, J. A. (2017). Examining active shooter events through the rational choice perspective & crime script analysis. Security Journal, 30(3), 880–902. https://doi.org/10.1057/sj.2015.12
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parkin, W. S., & Freilich, J. D. (2015). Routine activities and right-wing extremists: An empirical comparison of the victims of ideologically-and non-ideologically-motivated homicides committed by American far-rightists. Terrorism and Political Violence, 27(1), 182–203. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2014.975649
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peterson, J. K., & Densley, J. A. (2019). The violence project database of mass shootings in the United States, 1966–2019. The Violence Project.
   Google Scholar
• Sampson, R. J., Winship, C., & Knight, C. (2013). Translating causal claims: Principles and strategies for policy-relevant criminology. Criminology & Public Policy, 12(4), 587–616. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12027
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schildkraut, J. (2018). Mass shootings in America: Understanding the debates, causes, and responses. ABC-CLIO.
   Google Scholar
• Schildkraut, J., & Elsass, H. J. (2016). Mass shootings: Media, myths, and realities: Media, myths, and realities. Praeger.
   Google Scholar
• Schildkraut, J., & Hernandez, T. C. (2014). Laws that bit the bullet: A review of legislative responses to school shootings. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 39(2), 358–374. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-013-9214-6
   Google Scholar
• Schildkraut, J., Naman, B. M., & Stafford, M. C. (2019). Advancing responses to mass shootings using a routine activity approach. Crime Prevention and Community Safety, 21(4), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41300-019-00077-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silva, J. R., & Greene-Colozzi, E. A. (2019a). Deconstructing an epidemic: Assessing the prevalence of mass gun violence. In S. Daly (Ed.), Assessing and averting the prevalence of mass violence (pp. 39–67). IGI Global.
   Google Scholar
• Silva, J. R., & Capellan, J. A. (2019a). A comparative analysis of media coverage of mass public shootings: Examining rampage, disgruntled employee, school, & lone-wolf terrorist shootings in the United States. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 30(9), 1312–1341. https://doi.org/10.1177/0887403418786556
   Google Scholar
• Silva, J. R., & Greene-Colozzi, E. A. (2019b). Fame-seeking mass shooters in America: Severity, characteristics, and media coverage. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 48(5), 24–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2019.07.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silva, J. R., & Capellan, J. A. (2019b). The media’s coverage of mass public shootings in America: Fifty years of newsworthiness. International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, 43(1), 77–97. https://doi.org/10.1080/01924036.2018.1437458
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silva, J. R., Duran, C., Freilich, J., & Chermak, S. (2019). Addressing the myths of terrorism in America. International Criminal Justice Review, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1057567719833139
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanford Mass Shootings of America. (2017). Mass shootings in America. Stanford Geospatial Center, Stanford Libraries.
   Google Scholar
• Torres Soriano, M. R. (2012). The vulnerabilities of online terrorism. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 35(4), 263–277. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2012.656345
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winkler, A. (2013). Gunfight: The battle over the right to bear arms in America. W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Yelderman, L. A., Joseph, J. J., West, M. P., & Butler, E. (2019). Mass shootings in the United States: Understanding the importance of mental health and firearm considerations. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 25(3), 212–223. https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000200
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zeoli, A. M., & Webster, D. W. (2019). Firearm policies that work. Jama, 321(10), 937–938. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2019.0706
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar