Examining the Effects of Race/Ethnicity and Race Relations on Public Opinion about the Overrepresentation of Black People in U.S. Prisons

References

• Anderson, M. (2019, May 2). For Black Americans, experiences of racial discrimination vary by education level, gender. Pew Research Center. Retrieved May 19, 2020, from https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/05/02/for-black-americans-experiences-of-racial-discrimination-vary-by-education-level-gender/
   Google Scholar
• Bayley, D. H., & Mendelson, H. (1969). Minorities and the police. Free Press.
   Google Scholar
• Beaver, K. M., DeLisi, M., Wright, J. P., Boutwell, B. B., Barnes, J. C., & Vaughn, M. G. (2013). No evidence of racial discrimination in criminal justice processing: Results from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Personality and Individual Differences, 55(1), 29–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.01.020
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beck, A. J., & Blumstein, A. (2018). Racial disproportionality in the U.S. state prisons: Accounting for the effects of racial and ethnic differences in criminal involvement, arrests, sentencing, and time served. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 34(3), 853–883. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-017-9357-6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhopal, K. (2018). White privilege: The myth of a post-racial society. Policy press.
   Google Scholar
• Blumstein, A. (1982). On the racial disproportionality of the United States’ prison population. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 73(3), 1259–1270. https://doi.org/10.2307/1143193
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blumstein, A. (1993). Racial disproportionality of U.S. prison populations revisited. University of Colorado Law Review, 64(3), 743–760. https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/ucollr64&div=37&id=&page=
   Google Scholar
• Bobo, L., & Johnson, D. (2004). A taste of punishment: Black and white Americans’ views on the death penalty and the war on drugs. Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race, 1(1), 151–180. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742058X04040081
   Google Scholar
• Bobo, L. D. (2004). Inequalities that endure? Racial ideology, American politics, and the peculiar role of the social sciences. In M. Krysan & A. E. Lewis (Eds.), The changing terrain of race and ethnicity (pp. 13–42). Russell Sage Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Bonger, W. A. (1943). Race and crime. Columbia University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Buckler, K., & Unnever, J. D. (2008). Racial and ethnic perceptions of injustice: Testing the core hypotheses of comparative conflict theory. Journal of Criminal Justice, 36(3), 270–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2008.04.008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buckler, K., Unnever, J. D., & Cullen, F. T. (2008). Perceptions of injustice revisited: A test of Hagan et al.’s comparative conflict theory. Journal of Crime & Justice, 31(1), 35–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/0735648X.2008.9721243
   Google Scholar
• Buckler, K., Wilson, S., Hartley, D., & Davila, M. (2011). Racial and ethnic perceptions of injustice: Does prior personal vicarious incarceration experience alter the racial/ethnic gap in perceptions of injustice? Criminal Justice Review, 36(3), 269–290. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734016811409396
   Google Scholar
• Burgason, K. A. (2017). Trust is hard to come by: Disentangling the influence of structural characteristics and race on perceptions of trust in the police in a major southern county. Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice, 15(4), 349–371. https://doi.org/10.1080/15377938.2017.1385558
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chambliss, W., & Seidman, R. (1971). Law, order and power. Addison-Wesley.
   Google Scholar
• Clear, T. R. (2007). Imprisoning communities: How mass incarceration makes disadvantaged neighborhoods worse. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Cochran, J. K., & Chamlin, M. B. (2006). The enduring racial divide in death penalty support. Journal of Criminal Justice, 34(1), 84–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2005.11.007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Craig, M. A., & Richeson, J. A. (2012). Coalition or derogation? How perceived discrimination influences intraminority intergroup relations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(4), 759–777. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026481
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delisi, M. (2011). Where is the evidence of racial profiling? Journal of Criminal Justice, 39(6), 461–462. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2011.10.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delisi, M., & Regoli, R. (1999). Race, conventional crime, and criminal justice: The declining importance of skin color. Journal of Criminal Justice, 27(6), 549–557. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2352(99)00025-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DiIulio, J. (1996). My Black crime problem, and ours. City Journal, 6, 14–28. https://www.city-journal.org/html/my-black-crime-problem-and-ours-11773.html
   Google Scholar
• Du Bois, W. E. B. (1899). The Philadelphia Negro: A social study. The University of Pennsylvania Press.
   Google Scholar
• Du Bois, W. E. B. (ed.). (1904). Some notes on Negro crime, particularly in Georgia. Atlanta University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Feagin, R. F., & Feagin, C. (2008). Racial and ethnic relations (8th ed.). Prentice Hall.
   Google Scholar
• Foglia, W. D., & Connell, N. M. (2019). Distrust and empathy: Explaining the lack of support for capital punishment among minorities. Criminal Justice Review, 44(2), 204–230. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734016818796902
   Google Scholar
• Furstenberg, F. F., & Wellford, C. F. (1973). Calling the police: The evaluation of police service. Law & Society Review, 7(3), 393–406. https://doi.org/10.2307/3052921
   Google Scholar
• Gabbidon, S. L. (2020). Criminological perspectives on race and crime (4th ed.). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Gabbidon, S. L., & Higgins, G. E. (2009). The role of race/ethnicity and race relations on public opinion related to the treatment of blacks by the police. Police Quarterly, 12(1), 102–115. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611108329692
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gabbidon, S. L., Higgins, G. E., & Potter, H. (2011). Race, gender, and the perception of recently experiencing unfair treatment by the police: Exploratory results from an all-black sample. Criminal Justice Review, 36(1), 5–21. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734016810379904
   Google Scholar
• Gabbidon, S. L., & Jordan, K. L. (2013). Public opinion on the killing of Trayvon Martin: A test of the racial gradient thesis. Journal of Crime & Justice, 36(3), 283–298. https://doi.org/10.1080/0735648X.2013.798242
   Google Scholar
• Gabbidon, S. L., & Taylor Greene, H. (2019). Race and crime (5th ed.). Sage Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Hagan, J., & Albonetti, C. (1982). Race, class and the perception of injustice. American Journal of Sociology, 88(2), 329–355. https://doi.org/10.1086/227674
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hagan, J., Shedd, C., & Payne, M. R. (2005). Race, ethnicity, and youth perceptions of criminal injustice. American Sociological Review, 70(3), 381–407. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240507000302
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hawkins, D. F. (1987). Beyond anomalies: Rethinking the conflict perspective on race and criminal punishment. Social Forces, 65(3), 719–745. https://doi.org/10.2307/2578525
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haywood, J. M. (2017). Anti-Black Latino racism in an era of Trumpismo. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 30(10), 957–964. https://doi.org/10.1080/09518398.2017.1312613
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henderson, M., Cullen, F. T., Cao, L., Browning, S., & Kopache, R. (1997). The impact of race on perceptions of criminal injustice. Journal of Criminal Justice, 25(6), 447–462. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2352(97)00032-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hetey, R. C., & Eberhardt, J. L. (2018). The numbers don’t speak for themselves: Racial disparities and the persistence of inequality in the criminal justice system. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 27(3), 183–187. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721418763931
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Higgins, G. E., & Gabbidon, S. L. (2008). Examining the generality of citizens’ views on racial profiling in diverse situational contexts. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35(12), 1527–1541. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854808325214
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Higgins, G. E., & Gabbidon, S. L. (2012). Exploring untested measures on public opinion on the use of racial profiling during traffic stops to identify criminals. Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice, 10(1), 71–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/15377938.2012.642732
   Google Scholar
• Hurwitz, J., & Peffley, M. (2005). Explaining the great racial divide: Perceptions of fairness in the U.S. criminal justice system. The Journal of Politics, 67(3), 762–783. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2508.2005.00338.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jayakumar, U. M., & Adamian, A. S. (2017). The fifth frame of colorblind ideology: Maintaining the comforts of colorblindness in the context of white fragility. Sociological Perspectives, 60(5), 912–936. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731121417721910
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, J. M. (2008, August 4). Majority of Americans say racism against Blacks widespread. Gallup. Retrieved May 18, 2020, from https://news.gallup.com/poll/109258/majority-americans-say-racism-against-blacks-widespread.aspx
   Google Scholar
• Kolber, J. (2017). Having it both ways: White denial of racial salience while claiming oppression. Sociology Compass, 11(2), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12448
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, C. (2007). Hispanics and the death penalty: Discriminatory charging practices in San Joaquin County, California. Journal of Criminal Justice, 35(1), 17–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2006.11.012
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, J., & Gibbs, J. (2015). Race and attitudes toward police: The mediating effect of social distance. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 38(2), 314–332. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-03-2015-0034
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loury, G. C. (2008). Race, incarceration, and American values. MIT University Press.
   Google Scholar
• MacDonald, H. (2003). Are cops racist? How the war against the police harms Black Americans. Ivan R. Dee.
   Google Scholar
• MacDonald, H. (2008). Is the criminal-justice system racist? City Journal, 80. Retrieved May 6, 2008, from https://www.city-journal.org/html/criminal-justice-system-racist-13078.html
   Google Scholar
• MacDonald, H. (2016). The war on cops: How the new attack on law and order males everyone less safe. Encounter Books.
   Google Scholar
• Mann, C. R. (1993). Unequal justice: A question of color. Indiana University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mauer, M. (1999). Race to incarcerate. New Press.
   Google Scholar
• Miller, J. G. (1992a). Hobbling a generation: Young African American males in Washington, D.C.’s, criminal justice system. National Center for Institutions and Alternatives.
   Google Scholar
• Miller, J. G. (1992b). Hobbling a generation: Young African American males in the criminal justice system of America’s cities. National Center for Institutions and Alternatives.
   Google Scholar
• Miller, J. G. (1996). Search and destroy: African American males in the criminal justice system. Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mitchell, O. J. (2019). The paradox of a Black incarceration boom in an era of declining Black crime: Causes and consequences. In J. D. Unnever, S. L. Gabbidon, & C. Chouhy (Eds.), Building a Black criminology: Race, theory, and crime (pp. 343–368). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Morin, J. L. (2009). Latino/a rights and justice in the United States: Perspectives and approaches (2nd ed.). Carolina Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Morin, J. L. (ed.). (2016). Latinos and criminal justice: An encyclopedia. Greenwood.
   Google Scholar
• Nelson, M. A., Gabbidon, S. L., & Boisvert, D. (2015). Philadelphia area residents’ view on the disproportionate representation of Black and Hispanics in the criminal justice system. Journal of Crime & Justice, 38(2), 270–290. https://doi.org/10.1080/0735648X.2014.882268
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parks, R. (1976). Police response: Effects on citizen attitudes and perceptions. In W. G. Skogan (Ed.), Sample surveys of the victims of crime (pp. 89–104). Ballinger.
   Google Scholar
• Petrocelli, M., Piquero, A., & Smith, M. R. (2003). Conflict theory and racial profiling: An empirical analysis of police traffic stop data. Journal of Criminal Justice, 31(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2352(02)00195-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Picket, J. T., & Ryon, S. B. (2017). Race, criminal injustice frames, and the legitimation of carceral inequality as a social problem. Du Bois Review: Social Sciences Research on Race, 14(2), 577–602. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742058X17000121
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Potter, H. (2015). Intersectionality and criminology: Disrupting and revolutionizing studies of crime. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice. (1967). Task force report on the police. U.S. Government Printing Office.
   Google Scholar
• Quinney, R. (1970). The social reality of crime. Little, Brown.
   Google Scholar
• Reese, R. (2006). Prison race. Carolina Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Reitzel, J. D., Rice, S. K., & Piquero, A. R. (2004). Lines and shadows: Perceptions of racial profiling and the Hispanic experience. Journal of Criminal Justice, 32(6), 607–616. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2004.08.011
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rice, S., Piquero, A. R., & Reitzel, J. (2005). Shades of brown: Perceptions of racial profiling and intra-ethnic differential. Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice, 3(1–2), 47–70. https://doi.org/10.1300/J222v03n01_03
   Google Scholar
• Russell-Brown, K. (2004). Underground codes: Race, crime, and related fires. New York University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Russell-Brown, K. (2009). Color of crime (2nd ed.). NY: New York University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Schlesinger, T. (2008). The failure or race neutral policies: How mandatory terms and sentencing enhancements contribute to mass racialized incarceration. Crime & Delinquency, 57(1), 56–81. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128708323629
   Google Scholar
• Segura, L., & Smith, J. (2019, December 3). Counting the condemned: By any measure, capital punishment is a failed policy. The Intercept. Retrieved December 15, 2019, from https://theintercept.com/2019/12/03/death-penalty-capital-punishment-data/
   Google Scholar
• Sellin, T. (1928). The Negro criminal: A statistical note. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, 140(1), 52–64. https://doi.org/10.1177/000271622814000109
   Google Scholar
• The Sentencing Project. (2018, March). Report of the sentencing project to the United Nations Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia, and related intolerance. The Sentencing Project. Retrieved March 19, 2020, from https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/un-report-on-racial-disparities/
   Google Scholar
• Shedd, C., & Hagan, J. (2006). Toward a developmental and comparative conflict theory of race, ethnicity, and perceptions of injustice. In R. D. Peterson, L. P. Krivo, & J. Hagan (Eds.), The many colors of crime: Inequalities of race, ethnicity, and crime in America (pp. 313–333). New York University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Stern, C., & Axt, J. R. (2019). Group status modulates the associative strength between status quo supporting beliefs and anti-black attitudes. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 10(7), 946–956. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550618799067
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C. M., Torino, G. C., Bucceri, J. M., Holder, A. M. B., Nadal, K. L., & Esquilin, M. (2007). Racial microaggressions in everyday life: Implications for clinical practice. American Psychologist, 62(4), 271–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.62.4.271
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson, M., & Kahn, K. B. (2016). Mental health, race, and police contact: Intersections of risk and trust in the police. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 39(4), 807–819. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-02-2016-0015
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trahan, A., Dixon, A., & Nodeland, B. (2019). Public opinion on capital punishment: An intersectional analysis of race, gender, and class effects. Criminal Justice Review, 44(4), 452–469. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734016818818687
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Census Bureau. (2018, October 9). Hispanic population to reach 111 million by 2060. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved March 19, 2020, from https://www.census.gov/library/visualizations/2018/comm/hispanic-projected-pop.html
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Census Bureau. (2019). QuickFacts: Population estimates, July 1. 2018. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved December 16, 2019, from https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/US/PST045218
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics (2019b, April). Prisoners in 2017. Office of Justice Programs. Retrieved December 16, 2019, from https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/p17.pdf
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2019a). Arrests: Cities by race and ethnicity, 2018. 2018 Crime in the United States. Retrieved December 16, 2019, from https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2018/crime-in-the-u.s.-2018/tables/table-49
   Google Scholar
• Unnever, J. D. (2008). Two worlds far apart: Black-white differences in beliefs about why African American men are disproportionality imprisoned. Criminology, 46(2), 511–538. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2008.00117.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Unnever, J. D., & Cullen, F. T. (2007). Reassessing the racial divide in support for capital punishment: The continuing significance of race. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 44(1), 124–158. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427806295837
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Unnever, J. D., & Gabbidon, S. L. (2011). A theory of African American offending: Race, racism, and crime. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Updegrove, A. H., Cooper, M. N., Orrick, E. A., & Piquero, A. R. (2020). Red states and black lives: Applying the racial threat hypothesis to the Black Lives Matter movement. Justice Quarterly, 37(1), 85–108. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2018.1516797
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker, S., Spohn, C., & DeLone, M. (2017). The color of justice: Race, ethnicity and crime in America (6th ed.). Cengage Learning.
   Google Scholar
• Weitzer, R., & Tuch, S. A. (1999). Race, class, and perceptions of discrimination by the police. Crime & Delinquency, 45(4), 494–507. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128799045004006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weitzer, R., & Tuch, S. A. (2002). Perceptions of racial profiling: Race, class, and personal experience. Criminology, 40(2), 435–456. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2002.tb00962.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weitzer, R., & Tuch, S. A. (2005). Racially biased policing: Determinants of citizen perceptions. Social Forces, 83(3), 1009–1030. https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2005.0050
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weitzer, R., & Tuch, S. A. (2006). Race and police in America. Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Western, B. (2006). Punishment and inequality in America. Russell Sage Foundation Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Western, B., & Wildeman, C. (2009). The black family and mass incarceration. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, 621(1), 221–242. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716208324850
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilbanks, W. (1987). The myth of a racist criminal justice system. Brooks/Cole.
   Google Scholar
• Wolfgang, M. E. (1964). Crime and race: Conceptions and misconceptions. Institute of Human Relations Press.
   Google Scholar
• Work, M. (1913). Negro criminality in the South. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, 49(1), 74–80. https://doi.org/10.1177/000271621304900110
   Google Scholar
• Wright, V., & Unah, I. (2017). Media exposure and racialized perceptions of inequities in criminal justice. Social Sciences, 6(67), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci6030067
   Google Scholar