Generalized Hate: Bias Victimization against Non-Asian Racial/Ethnic Minorities during the COVID-19 Pandemic

References

• Addo, I. Y. (2020). Double pandemic: Racial discrimination and coronavirus disease 2019. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 2(1), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2020.100074
   Google Scholar
• Allison, P. D. (2001). Missing data. Sage Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Ansolabehere, S., & Schaffner, B. F. (2014). Does survey mode still matter? Findings from a 2010 multi-mode comparison. Political Analysis, 22(3), 285–303. https://doi.org/10.1093/pan/mpt025
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartoš, V., Bauer, M., Cahlíková, J., & Chytilová, J. (2021). Covid-19 crisis and hostility against foreigners. European Economic Review, 137, 103818. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2021.103818
   Google Scholar
• Bell, J. G., & Perry, B. (2015). Outside looking in: The community impacts of anti-lesbian, gay, and bisexual hate crime. Journal of Homosexuality, 62(1), 98–120. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2014.957133
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Binder, C. (2020). Coronavirus fears and macroeconomic expectations. Review of Economics and Statistics, 102(4), 721–730. https://doi.org/10.1162/rest_a_00931
   Google Scholar
• Black, D. (1983). Crime as social control. American Sociological Review, 48(1), 34–45. https://doi.org/10.2307/2095143
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blalock, H. M. (1967). Toward a theory of minority group relations. Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Blumer, H. G. (1958). Race prejudice as a sense of group position. The Pacific Sociological Review, 1(1), 3–7. https://doi.org/10.2307/1388607
   Google Scholar
• Boman, J. H., & Gallupe, O. (2020). Has COVID-19 changed crime? Crime rates in the United States during the pandemic. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 45(4), 537–545. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-020-09551-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carter, R. T. (2007). Racism and psychological and emotional injury: Recognizing and assessing race0based traumatic stress. Counseling Psychology, 35(1), 13–105. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000006292033
   Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020, April 1). New ICD-10-CM code for the 2019 novel Coronavirus (COVID-19). https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/icd/Announcement-New-ICD-code-for-coronavirus-3-18-2020.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Chen, J. A., Zhang, E., & Liu, C. H. (2020). Potential impact of COVID-19–related racial discrimination on the health of Asian Americans. American Journal of Public Health, 110(11), 1624–1627. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2020.305858
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cikara, M., Bruneau, E. G., & Saxe, R. R. (2011). Us and them: Intergroup failures of empathy. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20(3), 149–153. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721411408713
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clissord, E., Nylander, D., Watson, C., & Ventriglio, A. (2020). Pandemics and prejudice. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 66(5), 421–423. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020937873
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CloudResearch. (2020). How are participants on prime panels compensated? https://go.cloudresearch.com/knowledge/how-are-participants-on-prime-panels-compensated
   Google Scholar
• Cohen, L. E., & Felson, M. (1979). Social change and crime rate trends: A routine activity approach. American Sociological Review, 44(4), 588–608. https://doi.org/10.2307/2094589
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, L. E., Kluegel, J. R., & Land, K. C. (1981). Social inequality and predatory criminal victimization: An exposition and test of a formal theory. American Sociological Review, 46(5), 505–524. https://doi.org/10.2307/2094935
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Commission for Countering Extremism. (2020). COVID-19: How hateful extremists are exploiting the pandemic. Government of United Kingdom. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/906724/CCE_Briefing_Note_001.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Couch, K. A., Fairlie, R. W., & Xu, S. (2020). Early evidence of the impacts of COVID-19 on minority unemployment. Journal of Public Economics, 192, 104287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2020.104287
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cramer, R. J., Wright, S., Long, M. M., Kapusta, N. D., Nobles, M. R., Gemberling, T. M., & Wechsler, H. J. (2018). On hate crime victimization: Rates, types, and links with suicide risk among sexual orientation minority special interest group members. Journal of Trauma Dissociation, 19(4), 476–489. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299732.2018.1451972
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Devos, T., & Banaji, M. R. (2005). American = white? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(3), 447–466. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.88.3.447
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eichelberger, L. (2007). SARS and New York’s Chinatown: The politics of risk and blame during an epidemic of fear. Social Science & Medicine, 65(6), 1284–1295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.04.022
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faulkner, J., Schaller, M., Park., J. H., & Duncan, L. A. (2004). Evolved disease-avoidance mechanisms and contemporary xenophobic attitudes. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 7(4), 333–353. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430204046142
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2019) . Hate crime statistics, 2019. U.S. Department of Justice.
   Google Scholar
• Feldman, S., & Stenner, K. (1997). Perceived threat and authoritarianism. Political Psychology, 18(4), 741–770. https://doi.org/10.1111/0162-895X.00077
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gee, G. C., Ro., M. J., & Rimoin, A. W. (2020). Seven reasons to care about racism and COVID-19 and seven things to do to stop it. American Journal of Public Health, 110(7), 954–956. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2020.305712
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gover, A. R., Harper, S. B., & Langton, L. (2020). Anti-Asian hate crime during the COVID-19 pandemic: Exploring the reproduction of inequality. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 45(4), 647–667. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-020-09545-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Han, S. (2018). Neurocognitive basis of racial ingroup bias in empathy. Trends in Cognitive Science, 22(5), 400–421. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2018.02.013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanes, E., & Manchin, S. (2014). Hate crime in the wake of terror attacks: Evidence from 7/7 and 9/11. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 30(3), 247–267. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986214536665
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harlow, C. W. (2005). Hate crime reported by victims and police. US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
   Google Scholar
• Hindelang, M. J., Gottfredson, M. R., & Garofalo, J. (1978). Victims of personal crime: An empirical foundation for a theory of personal victimization. Ballinger.
   Google Scholar
• Hwang, W., & Goto, S. (2008). The impact of perceived racial discrimination on the mental health of Asian American and Latino college students. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 14(4), 326–335. https://doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.14.4.326
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iganski, P. (2001). Hate crimes hurt more. The American Behavioral Scientist, 45(4), 626–638. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764201045004006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson, J. C., Van Agmond, M., Choi, V. K., Ember, C. R., Halberstadt, J., Balanovic, J., & Fulop, M. (2019). Ecological and cultural factors underlying the global distribution of prejudice. PLoS One, 14(9), e0221953. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0221953
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobs, D., Veny, Y., Callier, L., Herman, B., & Descamps, A. (2011). The impact of the conflict in Gaza on antisemitism in Belgium. Patterns of Prejudice, 45(4), 341–360. https://doi.org/10.1080/0031322X.2011.605845
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jeung, R., & Nham, K. (2020). Incidents of Coronavirus discrimination: A report for A3PCON and CAA. Asian Pacific Policy and Planning Council.
   Google Scholar
• Kennedy, C., Mercer, A., Keeter, S., Hatley, N., McGeeney, K., & Gimenez, A. (2016). Evaluating online nonprobability surveys. Pew Research Center. https://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/12/2016/04/Nonprobability-report-May-2016-FINAL.pdf
   Google Scholar
• King, R. D., & Brustein, W. I. (2006). Political threat model of intergroup violence: Jews in pre-World War II Germany. Criminology, 44(4), 867–891. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2006.00066.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King, R. D., & Sutton, G. M. (2013). High times for hate crimes: Explaining the temporal clustering of hate-motivated offending. Criminology, 51(4), 871–894. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9125.12022
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kteily, N., Hodson, G., & Bruneau, E. (2016). They see us as less human: Metadehumanization predicts intergroup conflict via reciprocal dehumanization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 110(3), 343–370. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000044
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lantz, B., Gladfelter, A. S., & Ruback, R. B. (2019). Stereotypical hate crimes and criminal justice processing: A multi-dataset comparison of bias crime arrest patterns by offender and victim race. Justice Quarterly, 36(2), 193–224. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2017.1399211
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lantz, B., & Kim, J. (2019). Hate crimes hurt more, but so do co-offenders: Separating the influence of co-offending and bias on hate motivated physical injury. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 46(3), 437–456. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854818810314
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lantz, B., & Wenger, M. R. (2020). Bias and hate crime during the COVID-19 pandemic. Florida State University Hate Crime Research and Policy Institute. http://criminology.fsu.edu/wp-content/uploads/COVID-19-Hate-Crime-Report_Final.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Levin, B., & McDevitt, J. (2002). Hate crimes revisited: America’s war on those who are different. Westview Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lickel, B., Miller, N., Stenstrom, D. M., Denson, T. F., & Schmader, T. (2006). Vicarious retribution: The role of collective blame in intergroup aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10(4), 372–390. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu, R., & Sheng, Y. (2020). From fear to hate: How the COVID-19 pandemic sparks racial animus in the United States. arXiv. https://acsweb.ucsd.edu/~rul053/pdfs/Draft_covid19_racial_animus_Salience.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Margolin, J. (2020). FBI warns of potential surge in hate crimes against Asian Americans amid coronavirus. ABC News. https://abcnews.go.com/US/fbi-warns-potential-surge-hate-crimes-asianamericans/story?id=69831920
   Google Scholar
• Markel, H. (1999). Quarantine! East European Jewish immigrants and the New York City epidemics of 1892. Johns Hopkins University Press.
   Google Scholar
• McNeeley, S. (2015). Lifestyle-routine activities and crime events. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 31(1), 30–52. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986214552607
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McNeeley, S., & Overstreet, S. (2018). Lifestyle-routine activities, neighborhood context, and ethnic hate crime victimization. Violence and Victims, 33(5), 932–948. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-17-00136
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miethe, T. D., & Meier, R. F. (1990). Opportunity, choice, and criminal victimization: A test of a theoretical model. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 27(3), 243–266. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427890027003003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muzzatti, S. L. (2005). Bits of falling sky and global pandemics: Moral panic and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). Illness, Crisis & Loss, 13(2), 117–128. https://doi.org/10.1177/105413730501300203
   Google Scholar
• Myers, W., & Lantz, B. (2020). Reporting racist hate crime victimization to the police in the United States and the United Kingdom: A cross-national comparison. British Journal of Criminology, 60(4), 1034–1055. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azaa008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olzak, S. (1992). The dynamics of ethnic competition and conflict. Stanford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Pascoe, E. A., & Richman, L. S. (2009). Perceived discrimination and health: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 135(4), 531–554. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016059
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perry, B. (2003). Hate and bias crime: A reader. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Phillips, K. (2020, May 20). ‘We just want to be safe’: Hate crimes, harassment of Asian Americans rise amid coronavirus pandemic. USA Today. https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2020/05/20/coronavirus-hate-crimes-against-asian-americans-continue-rise/5212123002/
   Google Scholar
• Prati, G., & Pietrantoni, L. (2016). Knowledge, risk perceptions, and xenophobic attitudes: Evidence from Italy during the Ebola outbreak. Risk Analysis, 36(10), 2000–2010. https://doi.org/10.1111/risa.12537
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quillian, L. (1996). Group threat and regional change in attitudes toward African-Americans. American Journal of Sociology, 102(3), 816–860. https://doi.org/10.1086/230998
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rivers, D., & Bailey, D. (2009, May). Inference from matched samples in the 2008 US national elections. Proceedings of the Joint Statistical Meetings (Vol. 1, pp. 627–639). Palo Alto, CA: YouGov/Polimetrix.
   Google Scholar
• Rousseau, C., Hassan, G., Moreau, N., & Thombs, B. D. (2011). Perceived discrimination and its association with psychological distress among newly arrived immigrants before and after September 11, 2001. American Journal of Public Health, 101(5), 909–915. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2009.173062
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Royston, P. (2005). Multiple imputation of missing values: Update of ice. The Stata Journal, 5(4), 527–536. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536867x0500500404
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruback, R. B., Gladfelter, A. S., & Lantz, B. (2015). An examination of hate and bias incidents in Pennsylvania, 1999–2012. Center for Rural Pennsylvania.
   Google Scholar
• Rubin, D. B. (1987). Multiple imputation for nonresponse in surveys. Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Sampson, R. J., & Lauritsen, J. L. (1994). Violent victimization and offending: Individual-, situational-, and community-level risk factors. In A. J. Reiss & J. Roth (Eds.), Understanding and preventing violence: Social influences. Vol. 3 (pp. 1–114). National Academy Press.
   Google Scholar
• Sampson, R. J., & Lauritsen, J. L. (1990). Deviant lifestyles, proximity to crime, and the offender-victim link in personal violence. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 27(2), 110–139. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427890027002002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schaller, M., & Neuberg, S. L. (2012). Danger, disease, and the nature of prejudice(s). In B. Gawronski (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 46, pp. 1–54). Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Schild, L., Ling, C., Blackburn, J., Stringhini, G., Zhang, Y., & Zannettou, S. (2020). “Go eat a bat, chang!”: An early look on the emergence of Sinophobic behavior on web communities in the face of COVID-19. arXiv. https://arxiv.org/abs/2004.04046
   Google Scholar
• Simmons, A. D., & Bobo, L. D. (2015). Can non-full-probability internet surveys yield useful data? A comparison with full-probability face-to-face surveys in the domain of race and social inequality attitudes. Sociological Methodology, 45(1), 357–387. https://doi.org/10.1177/0081175015570096
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tessler, H., Choi, M., & Kao, G. (2020). The anxiety of being Asian American: Hate crimes and negative biases during the COVID-19 pandemic. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 45(4), 636–646. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-020-09541-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vachuska, K. F. (2020). Initial effects of the coronavirus pandemic on racial prejudice in the United States: Evidence from Google trends. SocArXiv. https://osf.io/preprints/socarxiv/bgpk3/
   Google Scholar
• Van Bavel, J. J., Baicker, K., Boggio, P. S., Capraro, V., Cichocka, A., Cikara, M., & Willer, R. (2020). Using social and behavioural science to support COVID-19 pandemic response. Nature Human Behaviour, 4, 460–471. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-020-0884-z
   Google Scholar
• Van Kesteren, J. (2016). Assessing the risk and prevalence of hate crime victimization in Western Europe. International Review of Victimology, 22(2), 139–160. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269758015627046
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waldner, L. K., & Berg, J. (2008). Explaining antigay violence using target convergence: An application of revised routine activities theory. Violence and Victims, 23(3), 267–287. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.23.3.267
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, C., Horby, P. W., Hayden, F. G., & Gao, G. F. (2020). A novel coronavirus outbreak of global health concern. The Lancet, 395(10223), 470–473. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30185-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong, W. (2020, March 17). Video shows passenger defending Asian woman facing racism on New York subway. NBS News. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/video-shows-passenger-defending-asian-woman-facing-racism-new-york-n1162296
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. (2015a). World Health Organization best practices for the naming of new human infectious diseases (No. WHO/HSE/FOS/15.1). https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/163636/WHO_HSE_FOS_15.1_eng.pdf
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. (2015b, May 8). WHO issues best practices for naming new human infectious diseases [Media Note]. https://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/notes/2015/naming-new-diseases/en/
   Google Scholar
• Wrigley-Field, E. (2020). US racial inequality may be as deadly as COVID-19. PNAS, 117(36), 21854–21856. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2014750117
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar