“We’re Not Allowed to Have Experienced Trauma. We’re Not Allowed to Go through the Grieving Process” - Exploring the Indirect Harms Associated with Child Sexual Abuse Material (CSAM) Offending and Its Impacts on non-offending Family Members

References

• Absalom, L. (2021). Indecent images of children offending and suicide: An interpretative phenomenological analysis of partners’ perspectives. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University College London.
   Google Scholar
• Arditti, J. A. (2005). Families and incarceration: An ecological approach. Families in Society, 86(2), 251–260. https://doi.org/10.1606/1044-3894.2460
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Attig, T. (2004). Disenfranchised grief revisited: Discounting love and hope. OMEGA - Journal of Death and Dying, 49(3), 197–214. https://doi.org/10.2190/P4TT-J3BF-KFDR-5JB1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailey, D. J. S. (2018). A life of grief: An exploration of disenfranchised grief in sex offender significant others. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 43(3), 641–667. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-017-9416-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bockneck, E. L., Sanderson, J., & Britner, P. (2009). Ambiguous loss and post-traumatic stress in school-age children of prisoners. Journal of Child & Family Studies, 18(3), 323–333. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-008-9233-y
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bordere, T. (2017). Disenfranchisement and Ambiguity in the Face of Loss: The Suffocated Grief of Sexual Assault Survivors. Family Relations, 66(1), 29–45. https://doi.org/10.1111/fare.12231
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boss, P. (2016). The context and process of theory development: The story of ambiguous loss. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 8(3), 269–286. https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12152
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
   Google Scholar
• Brogden, M., & Harkin, S. (2000). Living with a convicted sex abuser: Professional support for female partners. Child Care in Practice, 6(1), 85–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/13575270008413195
   Google Scholar
• Brown, M. (2017). An exploration of the challenges families experience when a family member is convicted of a sex offence. Prison Service Journal, 233, 34–41. https://howardleague.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/An-exploration-of-the-challenges-families-experience-when-a-family-member-is-convicted-of-sex-offence.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Bülow, W. (2014). The harms beyond imprisonment: Do we have special moral obligations towards the families and children of prisoners? Ethical Theory and Moral Practice, 17(4), 775–789. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10677-013-9483-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bursztein, E., Bright, T., Clarke, E., DeLaune, D., Elifff, M., Hsu, N., Olson, L., & Thomas, K. (2019). Rethinking the detection of child sexual abuse imagery on the internet. World Wide Web Conference (WWW’19). San Francisco, CA, Association for Computing Machinery.
   Google Scholar
• Cahalane, H., & Duff, S. (2018). A qualitative analysis of nonoffending partners’ experiences and perceptions following a psychoeducational group intervention. Journal of Sexual Aggression, 24(1), 66–79. https://doi.org/10.1080/13552600.2017.1384264
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cain, C. M., Sample, L. L., & Anderson, A. L. (2015). Public opinion of the application of sex offender notification laws to female sex offenders: Why it is important to examine. Criminal Justice Policy Review. https://doi.org/10.1177/0887403415572253
   Google Scholar
• Cassidy, K., Kabbash, L., & Ronis, S. T. (2021). A qualitative content analysis of an online support forum for family members of individuals with reported histories of sexual offences. The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 30(2), 232–242. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjhs.2021-0012
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centre for Social Justice. (2022). The golden thread: Putting family at the heart of the criminal justice system. https://www.centreforsocialjustice.org.uk/newsroom/the-golden-thread
   Google Scholar
• Christian, J. (2005). Riding the bus: Barriers to prison visitation and family management strategies. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 21(1), 31–48. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986204271618
   Google Scholar
• Codd, H. L. (2008). the Shadow of Prison: Families, Imprisonment and Criminal Justice. Willan Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Cohen, M. H. (2021). Reconciling selves after sexual offending: Exploring processes of desistance and impact on family members. [Doctoral dissertation]. University of Edinburgh. Era. https://era.ed.ac.uk/handle/1842/38473
   Google Scholar
• Comfort, M. (2008). Doing time together: Love and family in the shadow of prison. Chicago University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Condry, R. (2007). Families shamed: The consequences of crime for relatives of serious offenders. Crime ethnography series. Willan Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Condry, R., & Minson, S. (2021). Conceptualizing the effects of imprisonment on families: Collateral consequences, secondary punishment, or symbiotic harms? Theoretical Criminology, 25(4), 540–558. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362480619897078
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeShay, R. A., Vieraitis, L. M., Copes, H., Powell, Z. A., & Medrano, J. (2021). Managing courtesy stigma: Women and relationships with men in prison. Criminal Justice Studies, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/1478601X.2021.1966628
   Google Scholar
• Doka, K. J. (Ed.). (1989). Disenfranchised grief: Recognizing hidden sorrow. Lexington.
   Google Scholar
• Doka, K. J., & Aber, R. (1989). Psychosocial loss and grief. In K. J. Doka (Ed.), Disenfranchised grief: Recognizing hidden sorrow. Lexington Books.
   Google Scholar
• Duff, S., Wakefield, N., Croft, A., Perry, L., Valavanis, S., & Wright, L. (2017). A service for non-offending partners of male sexual offenders. The Journal of Forensic Practice, 19(4), 288–295. https://doi.org/10.1108/JFP-02-2017-0004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duncan, K., Wakeham, A., Winder, B., Blagden, N., & Armitage, R. (2022). “Grieving someone who’s still alive, that’s hard”: The experiences of non-offending partners of individuals who have sexually offended – An IPA study. Journal of Sexual Aggression, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/13552600.2021.2024611
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunstan, G. (2021, March 16). Online abuse: ‘I found out my husband had indecent images.’ BBC News. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-56404743
   Google Scholar
• Dwyer, J., & Miller, R. (1996). Disenfranchised Grief After Incest The experience of victims/daughters, mothers/wives. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Family Therapy, 17(3), 137–145. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1467-8438.1996.tb01089.x
   Google Scholar
• Elkin, M. (2020). Child sexual abuse in England and Wales: Year ending March 2019. Office for National Statistics. https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/articles/childsexualabuseinenglandandwales/yearendingmarch2019
   Google Scholar
• Evans, D., Trahan, A., & Laird, K. (2021). Shame and blame: Secondary stigma among families of convicted sex offenders. Criminology and Criminal Justice, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1177/17488958211017391
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farkas, M. A., & Miller, G. (2007). Reentry and reintegration: Challenges faced by the families of convicted sex offenders. Federal Sentencing Reporter, 20(1), 88–92. https://doi.org/10.1525/fsr.2007.20.2.88
   Google Scholar
• Galloway, S., & Hogg, N. (2008). Non-abusing parents and their role in risk management. In J. Houston & S. Galloway (Eds.), Sexual offending and mental health: Multi-disciplinary management in the community (pp. 229–247). Jessica Kingsley Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. Touchstone.
   Google Scholar
• Gramling, R., & Forsyth, C. J. (1987). Exploiting stigma. Sociological Forum, 2(2), 401–415. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01124172
   Google Scholar
• Granja, R. (2016). Beyond prison walls: The experience of prisoners’ relatives and meanings associated with imprisonment. Probation Journal, 63(3), 273–292. https://doi.org/10.1177/0264550516648394
   Google Scholar
• Halsey, M., & Deegan, S. (2015). ‘Picking up the pieces’: Female significant others in the lives of young (ex)incarcerated males. Criminology and Criminal Justice, 15(2), 131–151. https://doi.org/10.1177/1748895814526725
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hermann, A. F. (2011). ‘Losing things was nothing new’: A family’s stories of foreclosure. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 16(6), 497–510. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2011.576982
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoffer, T. A., Shelton, J. L. E., Behnke, S., & Erdberg, P. (2010). Exploring the impact of child sex offender suicide. Journal of Family Violence, 25(8), 777–786. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-010-9335-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howarth, R. (2011). Concepts and controversies in grief and loss. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 33(1), 4–10. https://doi.org/10.17744/mehc.33.1.900m56162888u737
   Google Scholar
• Jones, S. J., & Beck, E. (2006). Disenfranchised grief and nonfinite loss as experienced by the families of death row inmates. OMEGA - Journal of Death and Dying, 54(4), 281–299. https://doi.org/10.2190/A327-66K6-P362-6988
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, C., Salter, M., & Woodlock, D. (2022). “Someone who has been in my shoes”: The effectiveness of a peer support model for providing support to partners, family and friends of child sexual abuse material offenders. Victims & Offenders, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/15564886.2022.2051108
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Key, R., Underwood, A., Lawrenson, J., Hawton, K., Marzano, L., Kothari, R., Cresswell, L., & Farnham, F. (2017). Managing perpetrators of child sexual exploitation and indecent images of children (IIOC): Understanding risk of suicide. National Police Chiefs’ Council.
   Google Scholar
• Kilmer, A., & Leon, C. S. (2017). ‘Nobody worries about our children’: Unseen impacts of sex offender registration on families with school-age children and implications for desistance. Criminal Justice Studies, 30(2), 181–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/1478601X.2017.1299852
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knight, C., & Gitterman, A. (2019). Ambiguous loss and its disenfranchisement: The need for social work intervention. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services, 100(2), 164–173. https://doi.org/10.1177/1044389418799937
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kotova, A. (2017). Blaming and stigmatising female partners of male child sex offenders. Families Outside. https://www.familiesoutside.org.uk/content/uploads/2017/07/Kotova-Report.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Levenson, J. S., & Morin, J. W. (2001). Treating nonoffending parents in child sexual abuse cases. Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Levenson, J., & Tewksbury, R. (2009). Collateral damage: Family members of registered sex offenders. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 34(1–2), 54–68. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-008-9055-x
   Google Scholar
• Levey, T. G., & Pinsky, D. (2015). A constellation of stigmas: Intersectional stigma management and the professional dominatrix. Deviant Behavior, 36(5), 347–367. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2014.935658
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liddell, M., & Taylor, S. C. (2015). Women’s experiences of learning about the involvement of a partner possessing child abuse material in Australia. PartnerSPEAK Research Report. RMIT University.
   Google Scholar
• Marsh, S. C., Russell, K. N., & Evans, W. P. (2022). Trickle down registration: Exploring the lived experiences of partners of persons registered as a sexual offender. Health Communication, 37(8), 1041–1046. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2021.1888455
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Memarnia, N., Nolte, L., Norris, C., & Harborne, A. (2015). ‘It felt like it was night all the time’: Listening to the experiences of birth mothers whose children have been taken into care of adopted. Adoption & Fostering, 39(4), 303–317. https://doi.org/10.1177/0308575915611516
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nesmith, A., & Ruhland, E. (2008). Children of incarcerated parents: Challenges and resiliency, in their own words. Children and Youth Services Review, 30(10), 1119–1130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2008.02.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pellegrino, E. D. (1979). Toward a reconstruction of medical morality: The primacy of the act of profession and the fact of illness. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy, 4(1), 32–56. https://doi.org/10.1093/jmp/4.1.32
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phillips, S. D., & Gates, T. (2011). A conceptual framework for understanding the stigmatization of children of incarcerated parents. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 20(3), 286–294. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-010-9391-6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prat, S., & Jonas, C. (2013). Psychopathological characteristics of child pornographers and their victims: A literature review. Medicine, Science and the Law, 53(1), 6–11. https://doi.org/10.1258/msl.2012.011133
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Radosh, A., & Simkin, L. (2016). Acknowledging sexual bereavement: A path out of disenfranchisement. Reproductive Health Matters, 24(48), 25–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rhm.2016.11.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell, K. N. (2020). Courtesy stigma: Examining the collateral consequences of sexual offenses and subsequent policy on partners of sexual offenders. [Doctoral Dissertation]. University of Nevada, Reno. https://scholarworks.unr.edu//handle/11714/7565
   Google Scholar
• Salter, M., & Woodlock, D. (2021, November 8). ‘You never forget the knock at the door’: Why families of child sex abuse material offenders need more help. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/you-never-forget-the-knock-at-the-door-why-families-of-child-sex-abuse-material-offenders-need-more-help-171004
   Google Scholar
• Salter, M., Woodlock, D., & Jones, C. (2022). “You feel like you did something so wrong”: Women’s experiences of a loved one’s child sexual abuse material offending. Violence Against Women. Forthcoming. https://doi.org/10.1177/10778012221114920.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sample, L., Cooley, B., & ten Bensel, T. (2018). Beyond Circles of Support: “Fearless” – An open peer-to-peer mutual support group for sex offence registered sex offenders and their family members. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 62(13), 4257–4277. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X18758895
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saunders, V. (2018). What does your dad do for a living? Children of prisoners and their experiences of stigma. Children and Youth Services Review, 90, 21–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.05.012
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Serin, H. (2018). Non-abusing mothers’ support needs after child sexual abuse disclosure: A narrative review. Child & Family Social Work, 23, 539–548. https://doi.org/10.1111/cfs.12455
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shannon, K. L., Pearce, P., & Swarbrick, P. (2013). Factors influencing the development of an innovative service for women non-offending partners (NOPS) of male sexual offenders. Journal of Sexual Aggression, 19(3), 357–368. https://doi.org/10.1080/13552600.2012.729092
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stubley, A. (2015). “He’s a family man, but this is a dark side of him that I didn’t know about”: The lived experience of internet offenders’ partners. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Teeside University.
   Google Scholar
• Taddei, L. (2020). Impact of COVID-19 on online child sexual exploitation and abuse online. WePROTECT Global Alliance. https://www.weprotect.org/library/impact-of-covid-19-on-child-sexual-exploitation-online/
   Google Scholar
• Tewksbury, R., & Levenson, J. (2009). Stress experiences of family members of registered sex offenders. Behavioural Sciences and the Law, 27(4), 611–626. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.878
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson, A. J. (2017). The lived experience of non-offending mothers in cases of intrafamilial child sexual abuse: Towards a preliminary model of loss, trauma and recovery. https://ro.ecu.edu.au/theses/
   Google Scholar
• Travis, J., & Waul, M. (2003). Prisoners once removed: The children and family of prisoners. In J. Travis & M. Waul (Eds.), Prisoners once removed: The impact of incarceration and reentry on children, families and communities (pp. 1–29). The Urban Institute Press.
   Google Scholar
• Turanovic, J. J., Rodriguez, N., & Pratt, T. C. (2012). The collateral consequences of incarceration revisited: A qualitative analysis of the effects on caregivers of children of incarcerated parents. Criminology, 50(4), 913–959. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2012.00283.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wager, N. M., Wager, A. R., & Wilson, C. (2015). Circles South East’s programme for non-offending partners of child sex offenders: A preliminary outcome evaluation. Probation Journal, 62(4), 357–373. https://doi.org/10.1177/0264550515600541
   Google Scholar
• Walker, N. (2019). Intentional peer support as a trauma informed response to the partners of perpetrators of child sexual abuse material. The Winston Churchill Memorial Trust of Australia.
   Google Scholar
• Wolak, J., Finkelhor, D., & Mitchell, K. (2011). Child pornography possessors: Trends in offender and case characteristics. Sexual Abuse, 23(1), 22–42. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063210372143
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, B., El-Jawahri, A., & Prigerson, H. G. (2006). Update on bereavement research: Evidence-based guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of complicated bereavement. Journal of Palliative Medicine, 9(5), 1188–1203. https://doi.org/10.1089/jpm.2006.9.1188
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar