The potential role of employers in promoting sustainable mobility in rural areas: Evidence from Eastern AustriaFootnote^*

* The authors wish to thank the European Regional Development Fund and the Austrian Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Environment and Water Management (BMLFUW) for funding of the project ”Eco-mobility in the Austro-Hungarian border region” (EMAH). We also want to thank the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments and suggestions. We would like to thank Thomas Macoun, Helmut Lemmerer, Takeru Shibayama, Andreas Havelka and Reinhard Jakits for their contributions in setting up and designing the study as well as in the data collection.

References

• Aultman-Hall, L., Sears, J., Dowds, J., & Hines, P. (2012). Travel demand and charging capacity for electric vehicles in rural states. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2287, 27–36.
   Google Scholar
• Banister, C. & Gallent, N. (1999). Sustainable commuting: A contradiction in terms? Regional studies, 33(3), 274–280.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baruch, Y. & Holtom, B. C. (2008). Survey response rate levels and trends in organizational research. Human Relations, 61(8), 1139–1160.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baxter, P. & Jack, S. (2008). Qualitative case study methodology: Study design and implementation for novice researchers. The Qualitative Report, 13(4), 544–559.
   Google Scholar
• Becker, H. S. (2008). Tricks of the trade: How to think about your research while you’re doing it. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Braun, V. & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3, 77–101.
   Google Scholar
• Creswell, J. W., Hanson, W. E., Plano, V. L. C., & Morales, A. (2007). Qualitative research designs selection and implementation. The Counseling Psychologist, 35(2), 236–264.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curtis, C. (2008). Planning for sustainable accessibility: The implementation challenge. Transport Policy, 15(2), 104–112.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curtis, S., Gesler, W., Smith, G., & Washburn, S. (2000). Approaches to sampling and case selection in qualitative research: Examples in the geography of health. Social Science & Medicine, 50(7), 1001–1014.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dargay, J. M. (2002). Determinants of car ownership in rural and urban areas: a pseudo-panel analysis. Transportation Research Part E: Logistics and Transportation Review, 38(5), 351–366.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dickinson, J. E., Kingham, S., Copsey, S., & Hougie, D. J. (2003). Employer travel plans, cycling and gender: Will travel plan measures improve the outlook for cycling to work in the UK? Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 8(1), 53–67.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dütschke, E., Schneider, U., & Peters, A. (2013). Who will use electric vehicles? Working Paper Sustainability and Innovation, (06).
   Google Scholar
• Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989). Building theories from case study research. Academy of Management Review, 14(4), 532–550.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Enoch, M. & Potter, S. (2003). Encouraging the commercial sector to help employees to change their travel behaviour. Transport Policy, 10(1), 51–58.
   Google Scholar
• Flyvbjerg, B. (2006). Five misunderstandings about case-study research. Qualitative Inquiry, 12(2), 219–245.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fol, S., Dupuy, G., & Coutard, O. (2007). Transport Policy and the Car Divide in the UK, the US and France: Beyond the Environmental Debate. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 31(4), 802–818.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greene, D. L. & Wegener, M. (1997). Sustainable transport. Journal of Transport Geography, 5(3), 177–190.
   Google Scholar
• Hamer, R., Kroes, E., & Van Ooststroom, H. (1991). Teleworking in the Netherlands: An evaluation of changes in travel behaviour. Transportation, 18(4), 365–382.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanson, T. R. & Hildebrand, E. D. (2011). Can rural older drivers meet their needs without a car? Stated adaptation responses from a GPS travel diary survey. Transportation, 38(6), 975–992.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heinen, E., van Wee, B., & Maat, K. (2008). Het effect van werk gerelateerde aspecten op fietsgebruik voor Woon-Werkverkeer. Proceedings of Colloqium Vervoersplanologisch Speurwerk (CVS).
   Google Scholar
• Heinonen, S. & Weber, M. (1998). Recent experience with teleworking: Effects on transport. Technical report, Institute of Technology, Seville.
   Google Scholar
• Hickman, R., Hall, P., & Banister, D. (2013). Planning more for sustainable mobility. Journal of Transport Geography, 33, 210–219.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hsieh, H.-F. & Shannon, S. E. (2005). Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 15(9), 1277–1288.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hull, A. (2008). Policy integration: What will it take to achieve more sustainable transport solutions in cities? Transport Policy, 15(2), 94–103.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kohn, L. T. (1997). Methods in case study analysis. Center for Studying Health System Change, Washington, lit edition.
   Google Scholar
• Litman, T. (2007). Developing indicators for comprehensive and sustainable transport planning. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, (2017), 10–15.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mattioli, G. (2014). Where Sustainable Transport and Social Exclusion Meet: Households Without Cars and Car Dependence in Great Britain. Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning, 16(3), 379–400.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nash, C. & Sansom, T. (2001). Pricing European transport systems: recent developments and evidence from case studies. Journal of Transport Economics and Policy (JTEP), 35(3), 363–380.
   Google Scholar
• Newman, D., Wells, P., Donovan, C., Nieuwenhuis, P., & Davies, H. (2014). Urban, sub-urban or rural: where is the best place for electric vehicles? International Journal of Automotive Technology and Management, 14(3/4), 306–323.
   Google Scholar
• Newson, C. (1997). Changing journeys to work: an employers’ guide to green commuter plans. Transport 2000.
   Google Scholar
• OECD (2002). Road Travel Demand.
   Google Scholar
• Osti, G. (2010). Mobility demands and participation in remote rural areas. Sociologia Ruralis, 50(3), 296–310.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pettigrew, A. M. (1990). Longitudinal field research on change: Theory and practice. Organizatio n Science, 1(3), 267–292.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Potter, S., Rye, T., & Smith, M. (1999). Tax and green transport plans: A survey of UK experience. Transport Policy, 6(4), 197–205.
   Google Scholar
• Pucher, J. & Renne, J. L. (2005). Rural mobility and mode choice: Evidence from the 2001 National Household Travel Survey. Transportation, 32(2), 165–186.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ragin, C. C. & Becker, H. S. (1992). What is a case?: Exploring the Foundations of Social Inquiry. Cambridge: Cambridge university press.
   Google Scholar
• Roby, H. (2010). Workplace travel plans: Past, present and future. Journal of Transport Geography, 18(1), 23–30.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Root, A. (2001). Can travel vouchers encourage more sustainable travel? Transport Policy, 8(2), 107–114.
   Google Scholar
• Rye, T. (2002). Travel plans: Do they work? Transport Policy, 9(4), 287–298.
   Google Scholar
• Schoner, J. (2017). Mutually Reinforcing Relationships Between Bicycling Infrastructure. PhD thesis, University of Minnesota.
   Google Scholar
• Seawright, J. & Gerring, J. (2008). Case selection techniques in case study research: A menu of qualitative and quantitative options. Political Research Quarterly, 61(2), 294–308.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shergold, I., Parkhurst, G., & Musselwhite, C. (2012). Rural car dependence: an emerging barrier to community activity for older people. Transportation Planning and Technology, 35(1), 69–85.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stake, R. E. (2000). The case study methodology in social inquiry. Case study method. London: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Steuerreform Kommission (2014). Bericht der Steuerreform—Kommission 2014. Technical report.
   Google Scholar
• Su, Q. & Desalvo, J. (2008). The effect of transportation subsidies on urban sprawl. Journal of Regional Science, 48(3), 567–594.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tachet, R., Sagarra, O., Santi, P., Resta, G., Szell, M., Strogatz, S., & Ratti, C. (2017). Scaling law of urban ride sharing. Scientific Reports, 7, 1–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Umweltdachverband (2014). Abbau umweltschädlicher Subventionen in Österreich. Technical Report September.
   Google Scholar
• Unbehaun, W., Uhlmann, T., Hader, T., Aschauer, F., & Gerike, R. (2014). Care, mobility, employment: How do people in rural areas manage this challenge of squaring the circle. Proceedings of the Transport Research Arena (TRA).
   Google Scholar
• Van Malderen, L., Jourquin, B., Thomas, I., Vanoutrive, T., Verhetsel, A., & Witlox, F. (2012). On the mobility policies of companies: What are the good practices? The Belgian case. Transport Policy, 21, 10–19.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vanoutrive, T., Van De Vijver, E., Van Malderen, L., Jourquin, B., Thomas, I., Verhetsel, A., & Witlox, F. (2012). What determines carpooling to workplaces in Belgium: location, organisation, or promotion? Journal of Transport Geography, 22, 77–86.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vanoutrive, T., Van Malderen, L., Jourquin, B., Thomas, I., Verhetsel, A., & Witlox, F. (2009a). Carpooling and employers: A multilevel modelling approach. In 3rd Transport Research Day, pp. 335–349. VUB Press.
   Google Scholar
• Vanoutrive, T., Van Malderen, L., Jourquin, B., Thomas, I., Verhetsel, A., & Witlox, F. (2009b). Let the business cycle A spatial multilevel analysis of cycling to work. Belgeo. Revue belge de géographie, (2), 217–232.
   Google Scholar
• Vanoutrive, T., Van Malderen, L., Jourquin, B., Thomas, I., Verhetsel, A., & Witlox, F. (2010). Mobility management measures by employers: Overview and exploratory analysis for Belgium. European Journal of Transport and Infrastructure Research, 10(2), 121–141.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verhoef, E., Ubbels, B., Rodenburg, C., & Nijkamp, P. (2001). Sustainable mobility. Research Memorandum, 14, 1–6.
   Google Scholar
• Wappelhorst, S., Sauer, M., Hinkeldein, D., Bocherding, A., & Glaß, T. (2014). Potential of Electric Carsharing in Urban and Rural Areas. Transportation Research Procedia, 4, 374–386.
   Google Scholar
• Wrede, M. (2014). Agglomeration, tax competition, and fiscal equalization. International Tax and Public Finance, 21(6), 1012–1027.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yin, R. K. (2003). Case Study Research: Design and Methods. Vol. 5. Thousand Oaks, London, New Delhi:SAGE Publications.
   Google Scholar