References
- Aadland, R. L. (1981). The prediction of use of deadly force by police officers in simulated field situations. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. California School of Professional Psychology.
- Andersen, J. P., Pitel, M., Weerasinghe, A., & Papazoglou, K. (2016). Highly realistic scenario-based training simulates the psychophysiology of real-world use of force encounters: Implications for improved police officer performance. Journal of Law Enforcement. 5(4). https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/handle/1807/73822
- Baldwin, T. T., & Ford, J. K. (1988). Transfer of training: A review and directions for future research. Personnel Psychology, 41(1), 63–105. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1988.tb00632.x
- Bennell, C., & Jones, N. J. (2004). The effectiveness of use of force simulation training: Final report. Canadian Police Research Centre. https:https://www.laser-ammo.com/pdf/simulators-and-software/interpol-study.pdf
- Bennell, C., Jones, N. J., & Corey, S. (2007). Does use-of-force simulation training in Canadian police agencies incorporate principles of effective training? Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 13(1), 35–58. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8971.13.1.35
- Binder, A., & Fridell, L. (1984). Lethal force as a police response. National Institute of Justice.
- Birzer, M. L., & Tannehill, R. (2001). A more effective training approach for contemporary policing. Police Quarterly, 4(2). doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/109861101129197815
- Blair, J. P., Pollock, J., Montague, D., Nichols, T., Curnutt, J., & Burns, D. (2011). Reasonableness and reaction time. Police Quarterly, 14(4), 323–343. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611111423737
- Boyd, S. (1992). Training effectiveness of interactive video systems for the use of lethal force decision making. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of San Francisco.
- Carter, D. L., & Sapp, A. D. (1990). The evolution of higher education in law enforcement: Preliminary findings from a national study. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 1(1), 59–85. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/10511259000082061
- Chapman, C. (2012). Use of force in minority communities is related to police education, age, experience, and ethnicity. Police Practice & Research, 13(5), 421–436. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2011.596711
- Chappell, A. T. (2008). Police academy training: Comparing across curricula. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management, 31(1), 36–56. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1108/13639510810852567
- Colquitt, J. A., LePine, J. A., & Noe, R. A. (2000). Toward an integrative theory of training motivation: A meta-analytic path analysis of 20 years of research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85(5), 678. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.85.5.678
- Davies, A. (2015). The hidden advantage in shoot/don’t shoot simulator exercises for police recruit training. Salus Journal, 3, 1. https://doaj.org/article/52bcefc80713497fa8b37512665aa45d
- Department of Homeland Security. (2018). FLETC strategic plan 2018-2020.
- Department of Justice. (2017). The civil rights division’s pattern and practice police reform work: 1994-present.
- Dewey, J. (1938). Experience & education. Kappa Delta.
- Edwards, B. D. (2019). Perceived value of higher education among police officers: Comparing county and municipal officers. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 30(4), 606–620. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/10511253.2019.1621360
- Etter, G. W., & Griffin, R. (2011). In-service training of older law enforcement officers: An andragogical argument. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 34(2), 233–245. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1108/13639511111148861
- Finnimore, I. J. (2005). The efficacy of police academy training: A study of the relationship between suburban police officers and their training at a regional police academy. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Wilmington College.
- Gardiner, C. (2017). Policing around the Nation: Education philosophy, and practice. California State University, Center for Public Policy and the Police Foundation. https://www.policefoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/PF-Report-Policing-Around-the-Nation_10-2017_Final.pdf
- Grossman, R., & Salas, E. (2011). The transfer of training: What really matters. International Journal of Training and Development, 15(2), 2. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2419.2011.00373.x
- Harris, S. (2020). From driving to dogs, training simulators open a world of possibilities. Police Chief Magazine. https://www.policechiefmagazine.org/product-feature-from-driving-to-dogs-training-simulators-open-a-world-of-possibilities/
- Hayes, R. S. (2006). The science of learning: A systems theory approach. Brown Walker Press.
- Helsen, W. F., & Starkes, J. L. (1999). A new training approach to complex decision making for police officers in potentially dangerous interventions. Journal of Criminal Justice, 27(5), 395–410. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2352(99)00012-4
- Holbrook, H. A., & Cennamo, K. S. (2014). Effects of High-Fidelity Virtual Training Simulators on Learners’ Self-Efficacy. International Journal of Gaming and Computer-Mediated Simulations, 6(2), 38–52. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.4018/ijgcms.2014040104
- Howard, T. H. (1991). The relationship between selected personality and experiential variables on both shooting judgment and reaction time under simulated law enforcement shooting conditions. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 7(1), 2–7.
- Johnsen, B. H., Espevik, R., Saus, E. R., Sanden, S., & Olsen, O. K. (2016). Note on a training program for brief decision making for frontline police officers. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 31(3), 182–188. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-015-9180-7
- Jordan, E. B. (2014). Comparison of entry-level police officers and training instructor’s perceptions of the training environment as it relates to the transferability of training [Doctoral dissertation]. Capella University.
- Justice and Safety Centre. (2003). The evaluation of a mobile simulation training technology - PRISim. Justice and Safety Center, Eastern Kentucky University.
- Kase, C. A., Osilla, K. C., Seelma. R., Woodbridge, M. W., & Stein, B. (2017). A preliminary evaluation of interactive video simulation for campus law enforcement in California. Rand Health Q. https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR1389.html
- King Stargel, T. M. (2010). The perceived value of problem-based learning at a police training academy. [Doctoral dissertation]. Seattle University.
- Kolb, D. A. (2014). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. FT Press.
- Kratzig, G. P. (2013). Simulated pistol training: The future of law enforcement training? International Police Training Journal, 3(5), 5–7. https://laser-ammo.com/pdf/simulators-and-software/international-police-training-journal.pdf
- Lee, H., & Vaughn, M. S. (2010). Organizational factors that contribute to police deadly force liability. Journal of Criminal Justice, 38(2), 193–206. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2010.02.001
- Lettic, S. (2016). Problem based learning (PBL) in police training: An evaluation of the recruit experience. [Doctoral dissertation]. Capella University.
- Lewis, M. (2020). Setting cops up for failure: The possible implications of police accountability through body-worn cameras.[Doctoral dissertation]. Youngstown State University.
- Lim, H., & Lee, H. (2015). The effects of supervisor education and training on police use of force. Criminal Justice Studies, 28(4), 444–463. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/1478601X.2015.1077831
- Meers, J. (1985). Simulator brings crime into range. Psychology Today.
- Meminger, D. (2019, January 23). NYPD turns to virtual reality to improve relationship with teens. Spectrum News NY1. https://www.ny1.com/nyc/all-boroughs/news/2019/01/23/nypd-turns-to-virtual-reality-to-improve-relationship-with-teens
- New York City Police Department. (2015). Training: Bringing the NYPD into the 21st century. Author. http://www.nyc.gov/html/nypd/html/home/POA/pdf/Training.pdf
- Office of Dade County Criminal Justice Council. (1983). The synthesized media environment systems: An evaluation. Author. https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/89755NCJRS.pdf
- Oliva, J. R., & Compton, M. T. (2009). What do police officers value in the classroom?: A qualitative study of the classroom social environment in law enforcement education. Policing: An International Journal of Strategies & Management, 33(2), 321–338. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1108/13639511011044911
- Oudejans, R. (2008). Reality-based practice under pressure improves handgun shooting performance of police officers. Ergonomics, 51(3), 261–273. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/00140130701577435
- Paoline, E. A., & Terrill, W. (2007). Police education, experience, and the use of force. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 34(2), 179–196. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854806290239
- Paynich, R. L. (2009). The impact of a college-educated police force: A review of the literature. Curry College.
- Police Executive Research Forum. (2016a). Guiding principles on use of force. http://www.policeforum.org/assets/30%20guiding%20principles.pdf
- Police Executive Research Forum. (2016b). Integrating communications, assessment, and tactics: A training guide for defusing critical incidents. https://www.policeforum.org/assets/icattrainingguide.pdf
- President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing. (2015). Final Report of the President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing. Office of Community Oriented Policing Services. https://www2.palomar.edu/pages/police/files/2020/07/FinalReport21stCenturyPolicing.pdf
- Reaves, B. A. (2016). State and local law enforcement training academies, 2013 U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
- Rostker, B. D., Hanser, L. M., Hix, W. M., Jensen, C., Morral, A., Ridgeway, R., & Schell, G. (2008). Evaluation of the New York City Police Department firearm training and firearm-discharge review process. T. L.
- Roy, H., Wasylyshyn, N., Spangler, D. P., Gamble, K. R., Patton, D., Brooks, J. R., Garcia, J. O., & Vettel, J. M. (2019). Linking emotional reactivity between laboratory tasks and immersive environments using behavior and physiology. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 13(54), 1–14. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2019.00054
- Saus, E., Johnsen, B., Eid, J., Riisem, P. K., Andersen, R., & Thayer, J. (2006). The Effect of Brief Situational Awareness Training in a Police Shooting Simulator: An Experimental Study. Military Psychology, 18(sup1), 3–21. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327876mp1803s_2
- Scharf, P., Linninger, R., Marrero, D., Baker, R., & Rice, C. (1978). Deadly Force: The Moral Reasoning and Education of Police Officers Faced With the Option of Lethal Legal Violence. Policy Studies Journal, 7(s1), .450–454. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-0072.1978.tb01792.x
- Scharr, T. M. (2001). Interactive video training for firearms safety. Federal Probation, 6(2), 45–51. https://www.uscourts.gov/federal-probation-journal/2001/09/interactive-video-training-firearms-safety
- Schon, D. (1983). The reflective practitioner. Temple Smith.
- Sedevic, M. T. (2011). An evaluation of the Chicago Police Department’s recruit curriculum in emergency response week relating to terrorism awareness and response to terrorism incidents. Olivet Nazarene University [Doctoral Dissertation]. https://digitalcommons.olivet.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1032&context=edd_diss
- Seymour, G. O., Stahl, J. M., Levine, S. L., Ingram, J. L., & Smith, R. F.. (1994). Modifying law enforcement training simulators for use in basic research. Behavior Research Methods. Instruments, & Computers, 26(2), 266–268. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03204634
- Soderstrom, T., Lindgren, C., & Neely, G. (2018). Tacit knowing: Implications for the design of computer simulation training in education. Proceedings of the International Conference on Information, Communication, & Technology. http://www.icicte.org/assets/6.3_soderstrm_et_al.pdf
- Stroupe, W. E. (2003). A study of West Virginia State Police Academy graduates’ perceptions of their degrees of competence and the relevance of the Marshall University Community and Technical College Police Science Curriculum. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Marshall University.
- Thomasson, J., Gorman, D. R., Lirgg, C. D., & Adams, D. J. (2014). An analysis of firearms training performance among active law enforcement officers in the USA. The Police Journal: Theory, Practice and Principles, 87(4), 225–233. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1350/pojo.2014.87.4.685
- Timm, H. W. (1991). The relationship between selected personality and experiential variables on both shooting judgement and reaction time under simulated law enforcement shooting conditions. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 7(2), 2–7. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02832822
- U.S. Commission on Civil Rights. (2018). An examination of modern police practices.
- United Press International. (1983, August 4). Black observers criticize new police training simulator. https://www.newspapers.com/clip/24797176/police_training_simulator_criticism/
- Vander-Kooi, G. P. (2006). Problem-based learning: An attitudinal study of police academy students. [Doctoral dissertation] Western Michigan University.
- Velada, R., & Caetano, A. (2007). Training transfer: The mediating role of perception of learning. Journal of European Industrial Training, 31(4), 283–296. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1108/03090590710746441
- Vespucci, J. (2020). Education level and police use of force: The impact of a college degree. Springer.
- VirTra. (2013). VirTra Base Scenario Library. Author. Tempe, Arizona.
- VirTra. (2019). VirTra-300 brochure.
- VirTra. (2020). V-VICTA: Virtual coursework training academy. [Webpage]. https://www.virtra.com/overview-le/v-victa-training/
- Walling, N. A. (2007). Perceptions of the training needs of law enforcement officers [Doctoral dissertation]. University of Nevada.
- Warr, P., & Bunce, D. (1995). Trainee characteristics and the outcomes of open learning, Personnel Psychology. 48(2), 347–375. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1995.tb01761.x
- Werth, E. P. (2011). Scenario training in police academies: Developing students’ higher-level thinking skills. Police Practice and Research, 12(4), 325–340. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2011.563970
- Wheatly, S., Hollingsworh, A. C., & Greaves, I. (2020). Responding to the marauding terror attack: The police perspective. MJ Military Health, 166(80–83). https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1136/jramc-2018-000960
- White, C. R., Carson, J. L., & Wilbourn, J. M. (1991). Handgun Marksmanship Training: Evaluation of an Advanced Marksmanship Trainer. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 4(3), .63–73. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1937-8327.1991.tb00513.x
- White, R. (2016). Learning style preferences of law enforcement officers: A quantitative, non-experimental study [Doctoral dissertation]. Northcentral University.
- Winser, M. A., Hinson, J. M., James, S. M., Vila, B., Whitney, P., Hans, P. A., & Van Dongen, H. P. A. (2014). Fatigue during deadly force decision-making: Measuring skin conductance response during simulations. Sleep-Wake Research in the Netherlands, 25, 81–84. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272816634_Fatigue_During_Deadly_Force_Decision-Making_Measuring_Skin_Conductance_Response_During_Simulations
- Wollert, T., & Quail, J. (2018). A scientific approach to reality-based training. Three Pistols Publishing.
- Zoch, R. (2020, July 13). How to train to safely de-escalate someone in crisis. Police1. Police 1 By Lexipol. https://www.policeone.com/police-products/training/simulator/articles/how-to-train-to-safely-de-escalate-someone-in-crisis-mS3NbyUC21p0jwrl/