214
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Exploring the Patient Health Questionnaire-15 as a screening tool for wellness in law enforcement

, , , &
Pages 150-167 | Received 26 Jan 2023, Accepted 14 Apr 2023, Published online: 09 May 2023

References

  • Acquadro Maran, D., Varetto, A., Zedda, M., & Ieraci, V. (2015). Occupational stress, anxiety and coping strategies in police officers. Occupational Medicine, 65(6), 466–473. https://doi.org/10.1093/occmed/kqv060
  • Acquadro Maran, D., Zedda, M., & Varetto, A. (2018). Physical practice and wellness courses reduce distress and improve wellbeing in police officers. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(4), 578. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15040578
  • Agorastos, A., & Chrousos, G. P. (2021). The neuroendocrinology of stress: The stress-related continuum of chronic disease development. Molecular Psychiatry, 27(1), 502–513. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-021-01224-9
  • Albert, M., Tiatri, S., & Basaria, D. (2020). Relationship Between perceived stress and physical symptoms with somatic symptoms disorder as a moderating variable: study on medical student. Tarumanagara International Conference on the Applications of Social Sciences and Humanities. https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.200515.075
  • Altman, N. G., Izci-Balserak, B., Schopfer, E., Jackson, N., Rattanaumpawan, P., Gehrman, P. R., Patel, N. P., & Grandner, M. A. (2012). Sleep duration versus sleep insufficiency as predictors of cardiometabolic health outcomes. Sleep Medicine, 13(10), 1261–1270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2012.08.005
  • Appels, A. (1997). Exhausted subjects, exhausted systems. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica: Supplementum, 640, 153–154.
  • Appels, A., & Schouten, E. (1991). Waking up exhausted as risk indicator of myocardial infarction. The American Journal of Cardiology, 68(4), 395–398. https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-9149(91)90839-D
  • Baglioni, C., Spiegelhalder, K., Lombardo, C., & Riemann, D. (2010). Sleep and emotions: A focus on insomnia. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 14(4), 227–238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2009.10.007
  • Baik, S. H., Fox, R. S., Mills, S. D., Roesch, S. C., Sadler, G. R., Klonoff, E. A., & Malcarne, V. L. (2019). Reliability and validity of the perceived stress scale-10 in Hispanic Americans with English or Spanish language preference. Journal of Health Psychology, 24(5), 628–639. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105316684938
  • Balog, P., & Konkolÿ Thege, B. (2019). The role of vital exhaustion in predicting the recurrence of vascular events: A longitudinal study. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology, 19(1), 75–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijchp.2018.11.004
  • Beattie, L., Kyle, S. D., Espie, C. A., & Biello, S. M. (2015). Social interactions, emotion and sleep: A systematic review and research agenda. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 24, 83–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2014.12.005
  • Becker, J. P., Paixão, R., & Quartilho, M. J. (2022). Dynamic psychotherapy as a PTSD treatment for firefighters: a case study. Healthcare, 10(530), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare10030530
  • Bell, S., & Eski, Y. (2016). ‘Break a leg—it’s all in the mind’: Police officers’ attitudes towards colleagues with mental health issues. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 10(2), 95–101. https://doi.org/10.1093/police/pav041
  • Berwick, D. M., Murphy, J. M., Goldman, P. A., Ware, J. E., Jr., Barsky, A. J., & Weinstein, M. C. (1991). Performance of a five-item mental health screening test. Medical Care, 29(2), 169–176. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005650-199102000-00008
  • Bradley, K. D. (2020). Promoting Positive Coping Strategies in Law Enforcement: Emerging Issues and Recommendations. ( Officer Safety and Wellness Group Meeting Summary, Issue. https://cops.usdoj.gov/RIC/Publications/cops-p375-pub.pdf
  • Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2015). Local Police Departments, 2013: Personnel, Policies, and Practices. https://bjs.ojp.gov/content/pub/pdf/lpd13ppp.pdf
  • Buysse, D. J., Reynolds, C. F., 3rd, Monk, T. H., Berman, S. R., & Kupfer, D. J. (1989). The Pittsburgh sleep quality index: A new instrument for psychiatric practice and research. Psychiatry Research, 28(2), 193–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-1781(89)90047-4
  • Can, S. H., Hendy, H. M., & Camlibel, D. A. (2018). Comparison of police stressors and negative psychosocial outcomes for officers in departments with and without community conflict directed toward them. The Police Journal, 91(3), 239–248. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032258x17710892
  • Clarke, D. M., Piterman, L., Byrne, C. J., & Austin, D. W. (2008). Somatic symptoms, hypochondriasis and psychological distress: a study of somatization in Australian general practice. The Medical Journal of Australia, 189(10), 560–564. https://doi.org/10.5694/j.1326-5377.2008.tb02180.x
  • Cohen, S. (1988). Perceived stress in a probability sample of the United States. In S. Spacapan & S. Oskamp (Eds.),The social psychology of health (pp. 31–67). Sage Publications, Inc.
  • Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24(4), 385–396. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136404
  • Cotton, C. R., Peters, D. K., & Range, L. M. (2007). Psychometric properties of the suicidal behaviors questionnaire. Death Studies, 19(4), 391–397. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481189508252740
  • Craddock, T. B., & Telesco, G. (2022). Police stress and deleterious outcomes: Efforts towards improving police mental health. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 37(1), 173–182. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-021-09488-1
  • Cuijpers, P., Smits, N., Donker, T., ten Have, M., & de Graaf, R. (2009). Screening for mood and anxiety disorders with the five-item, the three-item, and the two-item mental health inventory. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 168(3), 250–255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2008.05.012
  • Denney, A. S., Copenhaver, A., & Schwendau, A. (2020). Predicting Health and Wellness Outcomes for Probation and Parole Officers: An Exploratory Study. Criminal justice policy review, 31(4), 573–591. https://doi.org/10.1177/0887403419870850
  • Dixon, S. S. (2021). Law enforcement suicide: The depth of the problem and best practices for suicide prevention strategies. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2021.101649
  • Duffield, T. C., Lim, M. M., Novak, M., Lin, A., Luther, M., Williams, C. N., & Piantino, J. (2021). The relationship between depressive symptoms, somatic complaints, and concussion history with poor sleep in collegiate athletes. Sleep Health, 7(1), 43–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2020.06.009
  • Edwards, K. L., Eaton-Stull, Y. M., & Kuehn, S. (2021). Police officer stress and coping in a stress-awareness era. Police Quarterly, 24(3), 325–356. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611120984162
  • Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2017). Full-time law enforcement employees. https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2017/crime-in-the-u.s.-2017/tables/table-74
  • Garg, P. K., Claxton, J. N. S., Soliman, E. Z., Chen, L. Y., Lewis, T. T., Mosley, T., & Alonso, A. (2021). Associations of anger, vital exhaustion, anti-depressant use, and poor social ties with incident atrial fibrillation: The atherosclerosis risk in communities study. European Journal of Preventive Cardiology, 28(6), 633–640. https://doi.org/10.1177/2047487319897163
  • Goel, N., Rao, H., Durmer, J. S., & Dinges, D. F. (2009). Neurocognitive consequences of sleep deprivation. Seminars in Neurology, 29(4), 320–339. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0029-1237117
  • Gupta, M. A. (2013). Review of somatic symptoms in post-traumatic stress disorder. International Review of Psychiatry, 25(1), 86–99. https://doi.org/10.3109/09540261.2012.736367
  • Habersaat, S., Abdellaoui, S. H., & Wolf, J. M. (2021). Social desirability, stress and health in police officers: Preliminary results. Policing: An International Journal, 44(2), 213–229. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-08-2020-0133
  • Hall, D. L., Lennes, I. T., Pirl, W. F., Friedman, E. R., & Park, E. R. (2017). Fear of recurrence or progression as a link between somatic symptoms and perceived stress among cancer survivors. Supportive Care in Cancer: Official Journal of the Multinational Association of Supportive Care in Cancer, 25(5), 1401–1407. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00520-016-3533-3
  • Hinz, A., Ernst, J., Glaesmer, H., Brähler, E., Rauscher, F. G., Petrowski, K., & Kocalevent, R. D. (2017a). Frequency of somatic symptoms in the general population: Normative values for the Patient Health Questionnaire-15 (PHQ-15). Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 96, 27–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2016.12.017
  • Hinz, A., Glaesmer, H., Brähler, E., Löffler, M., Engel, C., Enzenbach, C., Hegerl, U., & Sander, C. (2017b). Sleep quality in the general population: Psychometric properties of the Pittsburgh sleep quality index, derived from a German community sample of 9284 people. Sleep Medicine, 30, 57–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2016.03.008
  • International Association of Chiefs of Police. (n.d.). National consortium on preventing law enforcement suicide toolkit . Police, I. A. O. C. O. Ed., 1–20.https://www.theiacp.org/resources/national-consortium-on-preventing-law-enforcement-suicide-toolkit.
  • Jetelina, K. K., Molsberry, R. J., Gonzalez, J. R., Beauchamp, A. M., & Hall, T. (2020). Prevalence of mental illness and mental health care use among police officers. The JAMA Network Open, 3(10), e2019658. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.19658
  • Johnson, S., Cooper, C., Cartwright, S., Donald, I., Taylor, P., & Millet, C. (2005). The experience of work-related stress across occupations. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 20(2), 178–187. https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940510579803
  • Kalisch, R., Müller, M., & Tüscher, O. (2015). A conceptual framework for the neurobiological study of resilience. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 38, E92. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X1400082X
  • Kapfhammer, H. P. (2006). Somatic symptoms in depression. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 8(2), 227–239. https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2006.8.2/hpkapfhammer
  • Kecklund, G., & Axelsson, J. (2016). Health consequences of shift work and insufficient sleep. BMJ, 355, i5210. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.i5210
  • Ketcheson, F., St. Cyr, K., King, L., & Richardson, J. D. (2018). Influence of PTSD and MDD on somatic symptoms in treatment-seeking military members and Veterans. Journal of Military Veteran and Family Health, 4(2), 101–109. https://doi.org/10.3138/jmvfh.2017-0029
  • Knutson, K. L., Spiegel, K., Penev, P., & Cauter, E. V. (2007). The metabolic consequences of sleep deprivation. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 11(3), 163–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2007.01.002
  • Kocalevent, R. D., Hinz, A., & Brähler, E. (2013). Standardization of a screening instrument (PHQ-15) for somatization syndromes in the general population. BMC Psychiatry, 13(91). https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-13-91
  • Kopp, M. S., Falger, P. R., Appels, A., & Szedmak, S. (1998). Depressive symptomatology and vital exhaustion are differentially related to behavioral risk factors for coronary artery disease. Psychosomatic Medicine, 60(6), 752–758. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006842-199811000-00018
  • Kroenke, K., Spitzer, R. L., & Williams, J. B. (2002). The PHQ-15: Validity of a new measure for evaluating the severity of somatic symptoms. Psychosomatic Medicine, 64(2), 258–266. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006842-200203000-00008
  • Kroenke, K., Spitzer, R. L., Williams, J. B., & Löwe, B. (2010). The patient health questionnaire somatic, anxiety, and depressive symptom scales: A systematic review. General Hospital Psychiatry, 32(4), 345–359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2010.03.006
  • Mona, G. G., Chimbari, M. J., & Hongoro, C. (2019). A systematic review on occupational hazards, injuries and diseases among police officers worldwide: Policy implications for the South African Police Service. Journal of Occupational Medicine and Toxicology, 14(2), 10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12995-018-0221-x
  • Mumford, E. A., Alfaro Hudak, K., Liotta, M. M., & O’Leary, M. S. (2022). Occupational prestige and job satisfaction in high-stress public safety work. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice. https://doi.org/10.1093/police/paac049
  • Mumford, E. A., Liu, W., & Taylor, B. G. (2021a). Profiles of U.S. Law Enforcement Officers’ Physical, Psychological, and Behavioral Health: Results From a Nationally Representative Survey of Officers. Police Quarterly, 24(3), 357-381. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611121991111
  • Mumford, E. A., Liu, W., Taylor, B. G., & Ramey, S. (2021b). Profiles of US law enforcement officers’ diagnosed health conditions: results from a probability-based sample of officers. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 63(5), 422–431. https://doi.org/10.1097/jom.0000000000002162
  • Mumford, E. A., Maitra, P., Liu, W., & Taylor, B. G. (2021c). A nationally representative study of law enforcement shiftwork and health outcomes. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene, 192–202. https://doi.org/10.1080/15459624.2021.1876876
  • Mumford, E. A., & Taylor, B. G. (2022). Law enforcement officers safety and wellness: a multi-level study, United States, 2017-2020 [ distributor]. https://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR37821.v1
  • Na, J. -W., Yang, C. -M., Lee, S. -Y., & Jang, S. -H. (2022). Mental health and quality of life for disaster service workers in a province under COVID-19. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 11(6), 1600. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11061600
  • Osman, A., Bagge, C. L., Gutierrez, P. M., Konick, L. C., Kopper, B. A., & Barrios, F. X. (2001). The suicidal behaviors questionnaire-revised (SBQ-R): Validation with clinical and nonclinical samples. Assessment, 8(4), 443–454. https://doi.org/10.1177/107319110100800409
  • Pacella, M. L., Hruska, B., & Delahanty, D. L. (2013). The physical health consequences of PTSD and PTSD symptoms: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 27(1), 33–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2012.08.004
  • Penninx, B. W., Milaneschi, Y., Lamers, F., & Vogelzangs, N. (2013). Understanding the somatic consequences of depression: Biological mechanisms and the role of depression symptom profile. BMC Medicine, 11(129). https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-11-129
  • Picard, M., & McEwen, B. S. (2018). Psychological stress and mitochondria: A conceptual framework. Psychosomatic Medicine, 80(2), 126–140. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0000000000000544
  • Picard, M., & Turnbull, D. M. (2013). Linking the metabolic state and mitochondrial DNA in chronic disease, health, and aging. Diabetes, 62(3), 672–678. https://doi.org/10.2337/db12-1203
  • Ponder, W. N., Beauchamp, A. M., Schuman, D. L., Carbajal, J., Jetelina, K. K., & Galusha, J. M. (2022). Differences in suicidality in non–treatment-seeking and treatment-seeking law enforcement officers: A cross-sectional study. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 64(9), 797–801. https://doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0000000000002618
  • Prescott, E., Holst, C., Grønbæk, M., Schnohr, P., Jensen, G., & Barefoot, J. (2003). Vital exhaustion as a risk factor for ischaemic heart disease and all-cause mortality in a community sample. A prospective study of 4084 men and 5479 women in the Copenhagen City Heart Study. International Journal of Epidemiology, 32(6), 990–997. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyg235
  • Rajaratnam, S. M., Barger, L. K., Lockley, S. W., Shea, S. A., Wang, W., Landrigan, C. P., O’Brien, C. S., Qadri, S., Sullivan, J. P., Cade, B. E., Epstein, L. J., White, D. P., Czeisler, C. A. for the Harvard Work Hours, Health, & Safety Group. (2011). Sleep disorders, health, and safety in police officers. JAMA, 306(23), 2567–2578. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2011.1851
  • Ramey, S. L., Downing, N. R., Franke, W. D., Perkhounkova, Y., & Alasagheirin, M. H. (2012a). Relationships among stress measures, risk factors, and inflammatory biomarkers in law enforcement officers. Biological Research for Nursing, 14(1), 16–26. https://doi.org/10.1177/1099800410396356
  • Ramey, S. L., Perkhounkova, Y., Downing, N. R., & Culp, K. R. (2011). Relationship of cardiovascular disease to stress and vital exhaustion in an urban, Midwestern police department. AAOHN Journal: Official Journal of the American Association of Occupational Health Nurses, 59(5), 221–227. https://doi.org/10.1177/216507991105900504
  • Ramey, S. L., Perkhounkova, Y., Moon, M., Budde, L., Tseng, H. C., & Clark, M. K. (2012b). The effect of work shift and sleep duration on various aspects of police officers’ health. Workplace Health & Safety, 60(5), 215–222. https://doi.org/10.1177/216507991206000505
  • Reaves, B. A. (2012). Hiring and Retention of State and Local Law Enforcement Officers, 2008 - Statistical Tables. https://bjs.ojp.gov/content/pub/pdf/hrslleo08st.pdf
  • Regehr, C., Carey, M. G., Wagner, S., Alden, L. E., Buys, N., Corneil, W., Fyfe, T., Matthews, L., Randall, C., White, M., Fraess-Phillips, A., Krutop, E., White, N., & Fleischmann, M. (2019). A systematic review of mental health symptoms in police officers following extreme traumatic exposures. Police Practice & Research, 22(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2019.1689129
  • Schat, A. C. H., Kelloway, E. K., & Desmarais, S. (2005). The physical health questionnaire (PHQ): Construct validation of a self-report scale of somatic symptoms. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 10(4), 363–381. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.10.4.363
  • Shek, D. T. L., & Wilkinson, A. D. (2022). Leadership and resilience: Where should we go next? Journal of Leadership Studies, 16(2), 50–55. https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.21817
  • Shields, R. E., Korol, S., Carleton, R. N., McElheran, M., Stelnicki, A. M., Groll, D., & Anderson, G. S. (2021). Brief mental health disorder screening questionnaires and use with public safety personnel: A review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(7), 3743. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18073743
  • Smith, O., Kupper, N., Denollet, J., & De Jonge, P. (2011). Vital exhaustion and cardiovascular prognosis in myocardial infarction and heart failure: Predictive power of different trajectories. Psychological Medicine, 41(4), 731–738. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291710001133
  • Spitzer, R. L., Kroenke, K., & Williams, J. B. W. (1999). Validity and utility of a self-report version of PRIME-MD: The PHQ primary care study. Primary Care Evaluation of Mental Disorders. Patient Health Questionnaire. JAMA, 282(18), 1737–1744. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.282.18.1737
  • Taylor, B. G., Liu, W., & Mumford, E. A. (2022). A national study of the availability of law enforcement agency wellness programming for officers: A latent class analysis. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 24(2), 175–189. https://doi.org/10.1177/14613557211064050
  • van Leeuwen, C., van der Woude, L., & Post, M. (2012). Validity of the mental health subscale of the SF-36 in persons with spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord, 50, 707–710. https://doi.org/10.1038/sc.2012.33
  • Velazquez, E., & Hernandez, M. (2019). Effects of police officer exposure to traumatic experiences and recognizing the stigma associated with police officer mental health: a state-of-the-art review. Policing: An International Journal, 42(4), 711–724. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-09-2018-0147
  • Violanti, J. M., Charles, L. E., McCanlies, E., Hartley, T. A., Baughman, P., Andrew, M. E., Fekedulegn, D., Ma, C. C., Mnatsakanova, A., & Burchfiel, C. M. (2017). Police stressors and health: A state-of-the-art review. Policing, 40(4), 642–656. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-06-2016-0097
  • Violanti, J. M., Fekedulegn, D., Hartley, T. A., Andrew, M. E., Gu, J. K., & Burchfiel, C. M. (2013). Life expectancy in police officers: A comparison with the U.S. general population. International Journal of Emergency Mental Health, 15(4), 217–228. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24707585
  • Ware, J. E. J., & Sherbourne, C. D. (1992). The MOS 36-ltem short-form health survey (SF-36): I. Conceptual framework and item selection. Medical Care, 30(6), 473–483. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005650-199206000-00002
  • Weaver, M. D., & Barger, L. K. (2019). Sleep health as an issue of public safety. In M. A. Grandner (Ed.), Sleep and Health (pp. 489–499). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815373-4.00037-X
  • Weiss, D. S., Brunet, A., Best, S. R., Metzler, T. J., Liberman, A., Pole, N., Fagan, J. A., & Marmar, C. R. (2010). Frequency and severity approaches to indexing exposure to trauma: The critical incident history questionnaire for police officers. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23(6), 734–743. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20576
  • West, C., Fekedulegn, D., Andrew, M., Burchfiel, C. M., Harlow, S., Bingham, C. R., McCullagh, M., Park, S. K., & Violanti, J. (2017). On-duty nonfatal injury that lead to work absences among police officers and level of perceived stress. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 59(11), 1084–1088. https://doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0000000000001137
  • Xue, M., Yuan, Y., Chen, H., Dai, M., Sun, H., Qu, J., Zhou, T., Zhou, J., Qu, J., Bu, Y., Ji, S., Hu, Y., Yao, Z., Feng, Y., Gu, X., & Liu, Y. (2022). Analysis of Symptom Characteristics, Influencing Factors, and their predictive value for Posttraumatic stress disorder in Nurses: a Cross-Sectional Questionnaire Study. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, Preprint(11), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0000000000001547
  • Yoo, H., & Franke, W. D. (2011). Stress and cardiovascular disease risk in female law enforcement officers. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 84, 279–286. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-010-0548-9

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.