6,054
Views
191
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
WFSBP Consensus Paper

Biological markers for anxiety disorders, OCD and PTSD: A consensus statement. Part II: Neurochemistry, neurophysiology and neurocognition

, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , & show all
Pages 162-214 | Received 02 May 2016, Accepted 03 May 2016, Published online: 15 Jul 2016

References

  • Abelli M, Chelli B, Costa B, Lari L, Cardini A, Gesi C, Muti M, Lucacchini A, Martini C, Cassano GB, et al. 2010. Reductions in platelet 18-kDa translocator protein density are associated with adult separation anxiety in patients with bipolar disorder. Neuropsychobiology. 62:98–103.
  • Abelson JL, Curtis GC. 1989. Cardiac and neuroendocrine responses to exposure therapy in height phobics: desynchrony within the 'physiological response system'. Behav Res Ther. 27:561–567.
  • Abelson JL, Curtis GC, Cameron OG. 1996. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity in panic disorder: effects of alprazolam on 24 h secretion of adrenocorticotropin and cortisol. J Psychiatr Res. 30:79–93.
  • Abelson JL, Khan S, Liberzon I, Young EA. 2007. HPA axis activity in patients with panic disorder: review and synthesis of four studies. Depress Anxiety. 24:66–76.
  • Aboitiz F. 2009. Dynamics of neuromodulators–I. The role of dopaminergic signaling in goal-directed behavior. In Aboitiz F, Cosmelli D, editors. From attention to goal-directed behavior. Heidelberg, Berlin: Springer-Verlag, p. 187–204.
  • Abramovitch A, Abramowitz JS, Mittelman A. 2013. The neuropsychology of adult obsessive-compulsive disorder: a meta-analysis. Clin Psychol Rev. 33:1163–1171.
  • Adam EK, Vrshek-Schallhorn S, Kendall AD, Mineka S, Zinbarg RE, Craske MG. 2014. Prospective associations between the cortisol awakening response and first onsets of anxiety disorders over a six-year follow-up–2013 Curt Richter Award Winner. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 44:47–59.
  • Agam Y, Greenberg JL, Isom M, Falkenstein MJ, Jenike E, Wilhelm S, Manoach DS. 2014. Aberrant error processing in relation to symptom severity in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a multimodal neuroimaging study. Neuroimage Clin. 5:141–151.
  • Agam Y, Hamalainen MS, Lee AK, Dyckman KA, Friedman JS, Isom M, Makris N, Manoach DS. 2011. Multimodal neuroimaging dissociates hemodynamic and electrophysiological correlates of error processing. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA. 108:17556–17561.
  • Agorastos A, Kellner M, Stiedl O, Muhtz C, Wiedemann K, Demiralay C. 2015. Blunted autonomic reactivity to pharmacological panic challenge under long-term escitalopram treatment in healthy men. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 18:pii: pyu053.
  • Airaksinen E, Larsson M, Forsell Y. 2005. Neuropsychological functions in anxiety disorders in population-based samples: evidence of episodic memory dysfunction. J Psychiatr Res. 39:207–214.
  • Akimova E, Lanzenberger R, Kasper S. 2009. The serotonin-1A receptor in anxiety disorders. Biol Psychiatry. 66:627–635.
  • Akselrod S, Gordon D, Madwed JB, Snidman NC, Shannon DC, Cohen RJ. 1985. Hemodynamic regulation: investigation by spectral analysis. Am J Physiol. 249:H867–H875.
  • Alfano CA, Reynolds K, Scott N, Dahl RE, Mellman TA. 2013. Polysomnographic sleep patterns of non-depressed, non-medicated children with generalized anxiety disorder. J Affect Disord. 147:379–384.
  • Allen AJ, Leonard HL, Swedo SE. 1995. Case study: a new infection-triggered, autoimmune subtype of pediatric OCD and Tourette's syndrome. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 34:307–311.
  • Aloe L, Bracci-Laudiero L, Alleva E, Lambiase A, Micera A, Tirassa P. 1994. Emotional stress induced by parachute jumping enhances blood nerve growth factor levels and the distribution of nerve growth factor receptors in lymphocytes. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA. 91:10440–10444.
  • Alpers GW, Abelson JL, Wilhelm FH, Roth WT. 2003. Salivary cortisol response during exposure treatment in driving phobics. Psychosom Med. 65:679–687.
  • APA. 2013. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
  • Argyropoulos SV, Bailey JE, Hood SD, Kendrick AH, Rich AS, Laszlo G, Nash JR, Lightman SL, Nutt DJ. 2002. Inhalation of 35% CO(2) results in activation of the HPA axis in healthy volunteers. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 27:715–729.
  • Arun T, Tomassini V, Sbardella E, de Ruiter MB, Matthews L, Leite MI, Gelineau-Morel R, Cavey A, Vergo S, Craner M, et al. 2013. Targeting ASIC1 in primary progressive multiple sclerosis: evidence of neuroprotection with amiloride. Brain. 136:106–115.
  • Avery DH, Osgood TB, Ishiki DM, Wilson LG, Kenny M, Dunner DL. 1985. The DST in psychiatric outpatients with generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, or primary affective disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 142:844–848.
  • Aymard N, Honore P, Carbuccia I. 1994. Determination of 5-hydroxytryptamine and tryptophan by liquid chromatography in whole blood. Its interest for the exploration of mental disorders. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 18:77–86.
  • Babson KA, Feldner MT. 2010. Temporal relations between sleep problems and both traumatic event exposure and PTSD: a critical review of the empirical literature. J Anxiety Disord. 24:1–15.
  • Bailey JE, Argyropoulos SV, Kendrick AH, Nutt DJ. 2005. Behavioral and cardiovascular effects of 7.5% CO2 in human volunteers. Depress Anxiety. 21:18–25.
  • Bailey JE, Argyropoulos SV, Lightman SL, Nutt DJ. 2003. Does the brain noradrenaline network mediate the effects of the CO2 challenge? J Psychopharmacol (Oxford). 17:252–259.
  • Bailey JE, Dawson GR, Dourish CT, Nutt DJ. 2011a. Validating the inhalation of 7.5% CO(2) in healthy volunteers as a human experimental medicine: a model of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). J Psychopharmacol. 25:1192–1198.
  • Bailey JE, Kendrick A, Diaper A, Potokar JP, Nutt DJ. 2007. A validation of the 7.5% CO2 model of GAD using paroxetine and lorazepam in healthy volunteers. J Psychopharmacol (Oxford). 21:42–49.
  • Bailey JE, Papadopoulos A, Diaper A, Phillips S, Schmidt M, van der Ark P, Dourish CT, Dawson GR, Nutt DJ. 2011b. Preliminary evidence of anxiolytic effects of the CRF(1) receptor antagonist R317573 in the 7.5% CO(2) proof-of-concept experimental model of human anxiety. J Psychopharmacol. 25:1199–1206.
  • Bailey JE, Papadopoulos A, Seddon K, Nutt DJ. 2009. A comparison of the effects of a subtype selective and non-selective benzodiazepine receptor agonist in two CO(2) models of experimental human anxiety. J Psychopharmacol (Oxford). 23:117–122.
  • Baker DG, Ekhator NN, Kasckow JW, Hill KK, Zoumakis E, Dashevsky BA, Chrousos GP, Geracioti TD Jr., 2001. Plasma and cerebrospinal fluid interleukin-6 concentrations in posttraumatic stress disorder. Neuroimmunomodulation. 9:209–217.
  • Baldwin DS, Allgulander C, Altamura AC, Angst J, Bandelow B, den Boer J, Boyer P, Davies S, Dell'osso B, Eriksson E, et al. 2010. Manifesto for a European anxiety disorders research network. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 20:426–432.
  • Ball S, Marangell LB, Lipsius S, Russell JM. 2013. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor in generalized anxiety disorder: results from a duloxetine clinical trial. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 43:217–221.
  • Balon R, Pohl R, Yeragani V, Rainey J, Oxenkrug GF. 1987. Platelet serotonin levels in panic disorder. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 75:315–317.
  • Bandelow B, Alvarez Tichauer G, Spath C, Broocks A, Hajak G, Bleich S, Ruther E. 2001. Separation anxiety and actual separation experiences during childhood in patients with panic disorder. Can J Psychiatry. 46:948–952.
  • Bandelow B, Baldwin D, Abelli M, Altamura C, Dell’Osso B, Domschke K, Fineberg N, Grünblatt E, Jarema M, Maron E, et al. 2016. Biological markers for anxiety disorders, OCD and PTSD: a consensus statement. Part I: neuroimaging and genetics. World J Biol Psychiatry. Advance online publication. doi:10.1080/15622975.2016.1181783.
  • Bandelow B, Domschke K. 2015. Panic disorder. In Stein D, Vythilingum B, editors. Anxiety disorders and gender. New York: Springer.
  • Bandelow B, Michaelis S. 2015. Epidemiology of anxiety disorders in the 21st century. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 17:327–335.
  • Bandelow B, Sengos G, Wedekind D, Huether G, Pilz J, Broocks A, Hajak G, Ruther E. 1997. Urinary excretion of cortisol, norepinephrine, testosterone, and melatonin in panic disorder. Pharmacopsychiatry. 30:113–117.
  • Bandelow B, Wedekind D. 2006. Angst–neurobiologie. In Förstl H, Hautzinger M, Roth G, editors. Neurobiologie psychischer Störungen. Heidelberg, Berlin: Springer, p. 483–522.
  • Bandelow B, Wedekind D. 2015. Possible role of a dysregulation of the endogenous opioid system in antisocial personality disorder. Hum Psychopharmacol. 30:393–415.
  • Bandelow B, Wedekind D, Pauls J, Broocks A, Hajak G, Ruther E. 2000. Salivary cortisol in panic attacks. Am J Psychiatry. 157:454–456.
  • Bankier B, Barajas J, Martinez-Rumayor A, Januzzi JL. 2008. Association between C-reactive protein and generalized anxiety disorder in stable coronary heart disease patients. Eur Heart J. 29:2212–2217.
  • Barbano MF, Cador M. 2007. Opioids for hedonic experience and dopamine to get ready for it. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 191:497–506.
  • Battaglia M, Ogliari A, Harris J, Spatola CA, Pesenti-Gritti P, Reichborn-Kjennerud T, Torgersen S, Kringlen E, Tambs K. 2007. A genetic study of the acute anxious response to carbon dioxide stimulation in man. J Psychiatr Res. 41:906–917.
  • Battaglia M, Pesenti-Gritti P, Spatola CA, Ogliari A, Tambs K. 2008. A twin study of the common vulnerability between heightened sensitivity to hypercapnia and panic disorder. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 147B:586–593.
  • Berridge KC, Aldridge JW. 2008. Decision utility, the brain, and pursuit of hedonic goals. Soc Cogn. 26:621–646.
  • Bertini R, Garattini S, Delgado R, Ghezzi P. 1993. Pharmacological activities of chlorpromazine involved in the inhibition of tumour necrosis factor production in vivo in mice. Immunology. 79:217–219.
  • Bigger JT. Jr, Fleiss JL, Steinman RC, Rolnitzky LM, Kleiger RE, Rottman JN. 1992. Frequency domain measures of heart period variability and mortality after myocardial infarction. Circulation. 85:164–171.
  • Black DW, Kelly M, Myers C, Noyes R. Jr., 1990. Tritiated imipramine binding in obsessive-compulsive volunteers and psychiatrically normal controls. Biol Psychiatry. 27:319–327.
  • Black JL, Lamke GT, Walikonis JE. 1998. Serologic survey of adult patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder for neuron-specific and other autoantibodies. Psychiatry Res. 81:371–380.
  • Blanchard DC, Hynd AL, Minke KA, Minemoto T, Blanchard RJ. 2001. Human defensive behaviors to threat scenarios show parallels to fear- and anxiety-related defense patterns of non-human mammals. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 25:761–770.
  • Bonini F, Burle B, Liegeois-Chauvel C, Regis J, Chauvel P, Vidal F. 2014. Action monitoring and medial frontal cortex: leading role of supplementary motor area. Science. 343:888–891.
  • Bonne O, Bain E, Neumeister A, Nugent AC, Vythilingam M, Carson RE, Luckenbaugh DA, Eckelman W, Herscovitch P, Drevets WC, et al. 2005. No change in serotonin type 1A receptor binding in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 162:383–385.
  • Booij L, Swenne CA, Brosschot JF, Haffmans PM, Thayer JF, Van der Does AJ. 2006. Tryptophan depletion affects heart rate variability and impulsivity in remitted depressed patients with a history of suicidal ideation. Biol Psychiatry. 60:507–514.
  • Borovikova LV, Ivanova S, Zhang M, Yang H, Botchkina GI, Watkins LR, Wang H, Abumrad N, Eaton JW, Tracey KJ. 2000. Vagus nerve stimulation attenuates the systemic inflammatory response to endotoxin. Nature. 405:458–462.
  • Boulenger JP, Uhde TW. 1982. Biological peripheral correlates of anxiety. Encephale. 8:119–130.
  • Bourin M, Dailly E. 2004. Cholecystokinin and panic disorder. Acta Neuropsychiatr. 16:85–93.
  • Bowers ME, Choi DC, Ressler KJ. 2012. Neuropeptide regulation of fear and anxiety: Implications of cholecystokinin, endogenous opioids, and neuropeptide Y. Physiol Behav. 107:699–710.
  • Bradwejn J, Koszycki D, Bourin M. 1991a. Dose ranging study of the effects of cholecystokinin in healthy volunteers. J Psychiatry Neurosci. 16:91–95.
  • Bradwejn J, Koszycki D, du Tertre AC, Bourin M, Palmour R, Ervin F. 1992. The cholecystokinin hypothesis of panic and anxiety disorders: a review. J Psychopharmacol (Oxford). 6:345–351.
  • Bradwejn J, Koszycki D, Shriqui C. 1991b. Enhanced sensitivity to cholecystokinin tetrapeptide in panic disorder. Clinical and behavioral findings. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 48:603–610.
  • Brambilla F, Bellodi L, Perna G, Arancio C, Bertani A, Perini G, Carraro C, Gava F. 1997a. Noradrenergic receptor sensitivity in obsessive compulsive disorder: II. cortisol response to acute clonidine administration. Psychiatry Res. 69:163–168.
  • Brambilla F, Bellodi L, Perna G, Battaglia M, Sciuto G, Diaferia G, Petraglia F, Panerai A, Sacerdote P. 1992. Psychoimmunoendocrine aspects of panic disorder. Neuropsychobiology. 26:12–22.
  • Brambilla F, Bellodi L, Perna G, Bertani A, Panerai A, Sacerdote P. 1994. Plasma interleukin-1 beta concentrations in panic disorder. Psychiatry Res. 54:135–142.
  • Brambilla F, Bellodi L, Perna G, Garberi A, Panerai A, Sacerdote P. 1993. Lymphocyte cholecystokinin concentrations in panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 150:1111–1113.
  • Brambilla F, Perna G, Bellodi L, Arancio C, Bertani A, Perini G, Carraro C, Gava F. 1997b. Plasma interleukin-1 beta and tumor necrosis factor concentrations in obsessive-compulsive disorders. Biol Psychiatry. 42:976–981.
  • Brambilla F, Perna G, Bussi R, Bellodi L. 2000. Dopamine function in obsessive compulsive disorder: cortisol response to acute apomorphine stimulation. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 25:301–310.
  • Brambilla F, Perna G, Garberi A, Nobile P, Bellodi L. 1995. Alpha 2-adrenergic receptor sensitivity in panic disorder: I. GH response to GHRH and clonidine stimulation in panic disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 20:1–9.
  • Brand S, Annen H, Holsboer-Trachsler E, Blaser A. 2011. Intensive two-day cognitive-behavioral intervention decreases cortisol secretion in soldiers suffering from specific phobia to wear protective mask. J Psychiatr Res. 45:1337–1345.
  • Breznitz S, Ben-Zur H, Berzon Y, Weiss DW, Levitan G, Tarcic N, Lischinsky S, Greenberg A, Levi N, Zinder O. 1998. Experimental induction and termination of acute psychological stress in human volunteers: effects on immunological, neuroendocrine, cardiovascular, and psychological parameters. Brain Behav Immun. 12:34–52.
  • Brodie C, Gelfand EW. 1992. Functional nerve growth factor receptors on human B lymphocytes. Interaction with IL-2. J Immunol. 148:3492–3497.
  • Butler J, O'Halloran A, Leonard BE. 1992. The Galway study of panic disorder. II: changes in some peripheral markers of noradrenergic and serotonergic function in DSM III-R panic disorder. J Affect Disord. 26:89–99.
  • Cacioppo JT, Malarkey WB, Kiecolt-Glaser JK, Uchino BN, Sgoutas-Emch SA, Sheridan JF, Berntson GG, Glaser R. 1995. Heterogeneity in neuroendocrine and immune responses to brief psychological stressors as a function of autonomic cardiac activation. Psychosom Med. 57:154–164.
  • Cameron OG, Lee MA, Curtis GC, McCann DS. 1987. Endocrine and physiological changes during “spontaneous” panic attacks. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 12:321–331.
  • Cameron OG, Nesse RM. 1988. Systemic hormonal and physiological abnormalities in anxiety disorders. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 13:287–307.
  • Cameron OG, Smith CB, Nesse RM, Hill EM, Hollingsworth PJ, Abelson JA, Hariharan M, Curtis GC. 1996. Platelet alpha 2-adrenoreceptors, catecholamines, hemodynamic variables, and anxiety in panic patients and their asymptomatic relatives. Psychosom Med. 58:289–301.
  • Carney RM, Blumenthal JA, Stein PK, Watkins L, Catellier D, Berkman LF, Czajkowski SM, O'Connor C, Stone PH, Freedland KE. 2001. Depression, heart rate variability, and acute myocardial infarction. Circulation. 104:2024–2028.
  • Carr DB, Sheehan DV, Surman OS, Coleman JH, Greenblatt DJ, Heninger GR, Jones KJ, Levine PH, Watkins WD. 1986. Neuroendocrine correlates of lactate-induced anxiety and their response to chronic alprazolam therapy. Am J Psychiatry. 143:483–494.
  • Carrasco GA, Van de Kar LD. 2003. Neuroendocrine pharmacology of stress. Eur J Pharmacol. 463:235–272.
  • Carrasco M, Harbin SM, Nienhuis JK, Fitzgerald KD, Gehring WJ, Hanna GL. 2013. Increased error-related brain activity in youth with obsessive-compulsive disorder and unaffected siblings. Depress Anxiety. 30:39–46.
  • Carroll D, Phillips AC, Thomas GN, Gale CR, Deary I, Batty GD. 2009. Generalized anxiety disorder is associated with metabolic syndrome in the Vietnam experience study. Biol Psychiatry. 66:91–93.
  • Chagraoui A, Thibaut F, Skiba M, Thuillez C, Bourin M. 2016. 5-HT2C receptors in psychiatric disorders: a review. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 66:120–135.
  • Chalmers JA, Quintana DS, Abbott MJ, Kemp AH. 2014. Anxiety disorders are associated with reduced heart rate variability: a meta-analysis. Front Psychiatry. 5:80.
  • Chamberlain SR, Blackwell AD, Fineberg NA, Robbins TW, Sahakian BJ. 2005. The neuropsychology of obsessive compulsive disorder: the importance of failures in cognitive and behavioural inhibition as candidate endophenotypic markers. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 29:399–419.
  • Chamberlain SR, Fineberg NA, Blackwell AD, Clark L, Robbins TW, Sahakian BJ. 2007a. A neuropsychological comparison of obsessive-compulsive disorder and trichotillomania. Neuropsychologia. 45:654–662.
  • Chamberlain SR, Fineberg NA, Blackwell AD, Robbins TW, Sahakian BJ. 2006. Motor inhibition and cognitive flexibility in obsessive-compulsive disorder and trichotillomania. Am J Psychiatry. 163:1282–1284.
  • Chamberlain SR, Fineberg NA, Menzies LA, Blackwell AD, Bullmore ET, Robbins TW, Sahakian BJ. 2007b. Impaired cognitive flexibility and motor inhibition in unaffected first-degree relatives of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 164:335–338.
  • Chamberlain SR, Menzies L, Hampshire A, Suckling J, Fineberg NA, del Campo N, Aitken M, Craig K, Owen AM, Bullmore ET, et al. 2008. Orbitofrontal dysfunction in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder and their unaffected relatives. Science. 321:421–422.
  • Charney DS, Heninger GR, Jatlow PI. 1985. Increased anxiogenic effects of caffeine in panic disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 42:233–243.
  • Charney DS, Heninger GR, Redmond DE. Jr., 1983. Yohimbine induced anxiety and increased noradrenergic function in humans: effects of diazepam and clonidine. Life Sci. 33:19–29.
  • Charney DS, Woods SW, Goodman WK, Heninger GR. 1987. Neurobiological mechanisms of panic anxiety: biochemical and behavioral correlates of yohimbine-induced panic attacks. Am J Psychiatry. 144:1030–1036.
  • Chatterjee S, Sunitha TA, Velayudhan A, Khanna S. 1997. An investigation into the psychobiology of social phobia: personality domains and serotonergic function. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 95:544–550.
  • Chaudieu I, Beluche I, Norton J, Boulenger JP, Ritchie K, Ancelin ML. 2008. Abnormal reactions to environmental stress in elderly persons with anxiety disorders: evidence from a population study of diurnal cortisol changes. J Affect Disord. 106:307–313.
  • Chebib M, Johnston GA. 1999. The 'ABC' of GABA receptors: a brief review. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol. 26:937–940.
  • Chelli B, Pini S, Abelli M, Cardini A, Lari L, Muti M, Gesi C, Cassano GB, Lucacchini A, Martini C. 2008. Platelet 18 kDa translocator protein density is reduced in depressed patients with adult separation anxiety. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 18:249–254.
  • Chrousos GP. 1995. The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and immune-mediated inflammation. N Engl J Med. 332:1351–1362.
  • Chrousos GP. 2000. The stress response and immune function: clinical implications. The 1999 Novera H. spector lecture. Ann NY Acad Sci. 917:38–67.
  • Church AJ, Dale RC, Giovannoni G. 2004. Anti-basal ganglia antibodies: a possible diagnostic utility in idiopathic movement disorders? Arch Dis Child. 89:611–614.
  • Cirulli F, Alleva E. 2009. The NGF saga: from animal models of psychosocial stress to stress-related psychopathology. Front Neuroendocrinol. 30:379–395.
  • Clark CR, Galletly CA, Ash DJ, Moores KA, Penrose RA, McFarlane AC. 2009. Evidence-based medicine evaluation of electrophysiological studies of the anxiety disorders. Clin EEG Neurosci. 40:84–112.
  • Cohn JB, Wilcox CS, Meltzer HY. 1986. Neuroendocrine effects of buspirone in patients with generalized anxiety disorder. Am J Med. 80:36–40.
  • Condren RM, O'Neill A, Ryan MC, Barrett P, Thakore JH. 2002. HPA axis response to a psychological stressor in generalised social phobia. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 27:693–703.
  • Cools R, Clark L, Robbins TW. 2004. Differential responses in human striatum and prefrontal cortex to changes in object and rule relevance. J Neurosci. 24:1129–1135.
  • Copeland WE, Shanahan L, Worthman C, Angold A, Costello EJ. 2012. Generalized anxiety and C-reactive protein levels: a prospective, longitudinal analysis. Psychol Med. 42:2641–2650.
  • Coplan JD, Goetz R, Klein DF, Papp LA, Fyer AJ, Liebowitz MR, Davies SO, Gorman JM. 1998. Plasma cortisol concentrations preceding lactate-induced panic. Psychological, biochemical, and physiological correlates. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 55:130–136.
  • Coplan JD, Moreau D, Chaput F, Martinez JM, Hoven CW, Mandell DJ, Gorman JM, Pine DS. 2002. Salivary cortisol concentrations before and after carbon-dioxide inhalations in children. Biological Psychiatry. 51:326–333.
  • Coplan JD, Pine DS, Papp LA, Gorman JM. 1997. A view on noradrenergic, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and extrahypothalamic corticotrophin-releasing factor function in anxiety and affective disorders: the reduced growth hormone response to clonidine. Psychopharmacol Bull. 33:193–204.
  • Coplan JD, Tamir H, Calaprice D, DeJesus M, de la Nuez M, Pine D, Papp LA, Klein DF, Gorman JM. 1999. Plasma anti-serotonin and serotonin anti-idiotypic antibodies are elevated in panic disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology. 20:386–391.
  • Corchs F, Nutt DJ, Hince DA, Davies SJ, Bernik M, Hood SD. 2015. Evidence for serotonin function as a neurochemical difference between fear and anxiety disorders in humans? J Psychopharmacol (Oxford). 29:1061–1069.
  • Coryell W, Rickels H. 2009. Effects of escitalopram on anxiety and respiratory responses to carbon dioxide inhalation in subjects at high risk for panic disorder: a placebo-controlled, crossover study. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 29:174–178.
  • Costa B, Pini S, Abelli M, Gabelloni P, Da Pozzo E, Chelli B, Calugi S, Lari L, Cardini A, Lucacchini A, et al. 2012. Role of translocator protein (18 kDa) in adult separation anxiety and attachment style in patients with depression. Curr Mol Med. 12:483–487.
  • Coupland NY, Bailey JE, Potokar JP. 1995. Abnormal cardioascular responses to standing in panic disorder and social phobia. J Psychopharmacol. 9:A73.
  • Cox RC, Olatunji BO. 2016. A systematic review of sleep disturbance in anxiety and related disorders. J Anxiety Disord. 37:104–129.
  • Dale RC, Candler PM, Church AJ, Wait R, Pocock JM, Giovannoni G. 2006. Neuronal surface glycolytic enzymes are autoantigen targets in post-streptococcal autoimmune CNS disease. J Neuroimmunol. 172:187–197.
  • Davies SJ, Bjerkeset O, Nutt DJ, Lewis G. 2012. A U-shaped relationship between systolic blood pressure and panic symptoms: the HUNT study. Psychol Med. 42:1969–1976.
  • Davies SJ, Ghahramani P, Jackson PR, Noble TW, Hardy PG, Hippisley-Cox J, Yeo WW, Ramsay LE. 1999. Association of panic disorder and panic attacks with hypertension. Am J Med. 107:310–316.
  • Davies SJ, Hood SD, Argyropoulos SV, Morris K, Bell C, Witchel HJ, Jackson PR, Nutt DJ, Potokar JP. 2006. Depleting serotonin enhances both cardiovascular and psychological stress reactivity in recovered patients with anxiety disorders. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 26:414–418.
  • Davies SJ, Lowry CA, Nutt DJ. 2007. Panic and hypertension: brothers in arms through 5-HT? J Psychopharmacol (Oxford). 21:563–566.
  • Davies SJC, Allgulander C. 2013. Anxiety and cardiovascular disease. In Baldwin DS, Lennard BE, editors. Modern trends in pharmacopsychiatry: anxiety disorders, vol. 29. Basel, Switzerland: Karger Publishers, p. 85–97.
  • Daw ND, Kakade S, Dayan P. 2002. Opponent interactions between serotonin and dopamine. Neural Netw. 15:603–616.
  • de Bold AJ. 1985. Atrial natriuretic factor: a hormone produced by the heart. Science. 230:767–770.
  • de Kloet ER, Oitzl MS, Joels M. 1999. Stress and cognition: are corticosteroids good or bad guys? Trends Neurosci. 22:422–426.
  • de Koning PP, Figee M, Endert E, Storosum JG, Fliers E, Denys D. 2013. Deep brain stimulation for obsessive-compulsive disorder is associated with cortisol changes. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 38:1455–1459.
  • de Montigny C. 1989. Cholecystokinin tetrapeptide induces panic-like attacks in healthy volunteers. Preliminary findings. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 46:511–517.
  • de Oliveira DC, Chagas MH, Garcia LV, Crippa JA, Zuardi AW. 2012. Oxytocin interference in the effects induced by inhalation of 7.5% CO(2) in healthy volunteers. Hum Psychopharmacol. 27:378–385.
  • de Quervain DJ, Bentz D, Michael T, Bolt OC, Wiederhold BK, Margraf J, Wilhelm FH. 2011. Glucocorticoids enhance extinction-based psychotherapy. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA. 108:6621–6625.
  • de Quervain DJ, Margraf J. 2008. Glucocorticoids for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder and phobias: a novel therapeutic approach. Eur J Pharmacol. 583:365–371.
  • de Wit SJ, de Vries FE, van der Werf YD, Cath DC, Heslenfeld DJ, Veltman EM, van Balkom AJ, Veltman DJ, van den Heuvel OA. 2012. Presupplementary motor area hyperactivity during response inhibition: a candidate endophenotype of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 169:1100–1108.
  • Deakin J. 2013. The origins of '5-HT and mechanisms of defence' by Deakin and Graeff: a personal perspective. J Psychopharmacol (Oxford). 27:1084–1089.
  • Deakin JWF, Graeff FG. 1991. 5-HT and mechanisms of defence. J. Psychopharmacology. 5:305–315.
  • Dekker JM, Crow RS, Folsom AR, Hannan PJ, Liao D, Swenne CA, Schouten EG. 2000. Low heart rate variability in a 2-minute rhythm strip predicts risk of coronary heart disease and mortality from several causes: the ARIC Study. Atherosclerosis risk in communities. Circulation. 102:1239–1244.
  • Del Boca C, Lutz PE, Le Merrer J, Koebel P, Kieffer BL. 2012. Cholecystokinin knock-down in the basolateral amygdala has anxiolytic and antidepressant-like effects in mice. Neuroscience. 218:185–195.
  • Delahanty DL, Nugent NR, Christopher NC, Walsh M. 2005. Initial urinary epinephrine and cortisol levels predict acute PTSD symptoms in child trauma victims. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 30:121–128.
  • Delahanty DL, Raimonde AJ, Spoonster E. 2000. Initial posttraumatic urinary cortisol levels predict subsequent PTSD symptoms in motor vehicle accident victims. Biol Psychiatry. 48:940–947.
  • Delorme R, Chabane N, Callebert J, Falissard B, Mouren-Simeoni MC, Rouillon F, Launay JM, Leboyer M. 2004. Platelet serotonergic predictors of clinical improvement in obsessive compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 24:18–23.
  • Delorme R, Gousse V, Roy I, Trandafir A, Mathieu F, Mouren-Simeoni MC, Betancur C, Leboyer M. 2007. Shared executive dysfunctions in unaffected relatives of patients with autism and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Eur Psychiatry. 22:32–38.
  • Demiralay C, Jahn H, Kellner M, Yassouridis A, Wiedemann K. 2012. Differential effects to CCK-4-induced panic by dexamethasone and hydrocortisone. World J Biol Psychiatry. 13:526–534.
  • Den Boer JA, Westenberg HG, Klompmakers AA, van Lint LE. 1989. Behavioral biochemical and neuroendocrine concomitants of lactate-induced panic anxiety. Biol Psychiatry. 26:612–622.
  • Denys D, Fluitman S, Kavelaars A, Heijnen C, Westenberg H. 2004. Decreased TNF-alpha and NK activity in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 29:945–952.
  • DeVane CL, Ware MR, Emmanuel NP, Brawman-Mintzer O, Morton WA, Villarreal G, Lydiard RB. 1999. Evaluation of the efficacy, safety and physiological effects of fluvoxamine in social phobia. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 14:345–351.
  • Diaper A, Osman-Hicks V, Rich AS, Craig K, Dourish CT, Dawson GR, Nutt DJ, Bailey JE. 2013. Evaluation of the effects of venlafaxine and pregabalin on the carbon dioxide inhalation models of generalised anxiety disorder and panic. J Psychopharmacol (Oxford). 27:135–145.
  • Diaper A, Papadopoulos A, Rich AS, Dawson GR, Dourish CT, Nutt DJ, Bailey JE. 2012. The effect of a clinically effective and non-effective dose of lorazepam on 7.5% CO2-induced anxiety. Hum Psychopharmacol. 27:540–548.
  • Dieleman GC, Huizink AC, Tulen JH, Utens EM, Creemers HE, van der Ende J, Verhulst FC. 2015. Alterations in HPA-axis and autonomic nervous system functioning in childhood anxiety disorders point to a chronic stress hypothesis. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 51:135–150.
  • Dieler AC, Samann PG, Leicht G, Eser D, Kirsch V, Baghai TC, Karch S, Schule C, Pogarell O, Czisch M, et al. 2008. Independent component analysis applied to pharmacological magnetic resonance imaging (phMRI): new insights into the functional networks underlying panic attacks as induced by CCK-4. Curr Pharm Des. 14:3492–3507.
  • Domschke K, Zwanzger P. 2008. GABAergic and endocannabinoid dysfunction in anxiety - future therapeutic targets? Curr Pharm Des. 14:3508–3517.
  • Ebner K, Singewald N. 2006. The role of substance P in stress and anxiety responses. Amino Acids. 31:251–272.
  • Elenkov IJ, Wilder RL, Chrousos GP, Vizi ES. 2000. The sympathetic nerve–an integrative interface between two supersystems: the brain and the immune system. Pharmacol Rev. 52:595–638.
  • Elnazer HY, Baldwin DS. 2014. Investigation of cortisol levels in patients with anxiety disorders: a structured review. Curr Top Behav Neurosci. 18:191–216.
  • Endrass T, Klawohn J, Schuster F, Kathmann N. 2008. Overactive performance monitoring in obsessive-compulsive disorder: ERP evidence from correct and erroneous reactions. Neuropsychologia. 46:1877–1887.
  • Endrass T, Schuermann B, Kaufmann C, Spielberg R, Kniesche R, Kathmann N. 2010. Performance monitoring and error significance in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biol Psychol. 84:257–263.
  • Endrass T, Ullsperger M. 2014. Specificity of performance monitoring changes in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 46 Pt 1:124–138.
  • Erhardt A, Ising M, Unschuld PG, Kern N, Lucae S, Putz B, Uhr M, Binder EB, Holsboer F, Keck ME. 2006. Regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system in patients with panic disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology. 31:2515–2522.
  • Eriksson E, Westberg P, Alling C, Thuresson K, Modigh K. 1991. Cerebrospinal fluid levels of monoamine metabolites in panic disorder. Psychiatry Res. 36:243–251.
  • Eser D, Leicht G, Lutz J, Wenninger S, Kirsch V, Schule C, Karch S, Baghai T, Pogarell O, Born C, et al. 2009. Functional neuroanatomy of CCK-4-induced panic attacks in healthy volunteers. Hum Brain Mapp. 30:511–522.
  • Eser D, Schule C, Baghai T, Floesser A, Krebs-Brown A, Enunwa M, de la Motte S, Engel R, Kucher K, Rupprecht R. 2007. Evaluation of the CCK-4 model as a challenge paradigm in a population of healthy volunteers within a proof-of-concept study. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 192:479–487.
  • Eser D, Wenninger S, Baghai T, Schule C, Rupprecht R. 2008. Impact of state and trait anxiety on the panic response to CCK-4. J Neural Transm (Vienna). 115:917–920.
  • Esler M, Alvarenga M, Lambert G, Kaye D, Hastings J, Jennings G, Morris M, Schwarz R, Richards J. 2004. Cardiac sympathetic nerve biology and brain monoamine turnover in panic disorder. Ann NY Acad Sci. 1018:505–514.
  • Esler M, Rumantir M, Kaye D, Lambert G. 2001. The sympathetic neurobiology of essential hypertension: disparate influences of obesity, stress, and noradrenaline transporter dysfunction? Am J Hypertens. 14:139S–146S.
  • Essex MJ, Klein MH, Slattery MJ, Goldsmith HH, Kalin NH. 2010. Early risk factors and developmental pathways to chronic high inhibition and social anxiety disorder in adolescence. Am J Psychiatry. 167:40–46.
  • Evans L, Schneider P, Ross-Lee L, Wiltshire B, Eadie M, Kenardy J, Hoey H. 1985. Plasma serotonin levels in agoraphobia. Am J Psychiatry. 142:267
  • Everly GS, Horton AM. Jr., 1989. Neuropsychology of posttraumatic stress disorder: a pilot study. Percept Mot Skills. 68:807–810.
  • Ewing DJ, Neilson JM, Travis P. 1984. New method for assessing cardiac parasympathetic activity using 24 hour electrocardiograms. Br Heart J. 52:396–402.
  • Fani N, Kitayama N, Ashraf A, Reed L, Afzal N, Jawed F, Bremner JD. 2009. Neuropsychological functioning in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder following short-term paroxetine treatment. Psychopharmacol Bull. 42:53–68.
  • Faravelli C, Lo Sauro C, Lelli L, Pietrini F, Lazzeretti L, Godini L, Benni L, Fioravanti G, Talamba GA, Castellini G, et al. 2012. The role of life events and HPA axis in anxiety disorders: a review. Curr Pharm Des. 18:5663–5674.
  • Feinstein JS, Buzza C, Hurlemann R, Follmer RL, Dahdaleh NS, Coryell WH, Welsh MJ, Tranel D, Wemmie JA. 2013. Fear and panic in humans with bilateral amygdala damage. Nat Neurosci. 16:270–272.
  • Feusner JD, Moody T, Hembacher E, Townsend J, McKinley M, Moller H, Bookheimer S. 2010. Abnormalities of visual processing and frontostriatal systems in body dysmorphic disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 67:197–205.
  • Fichtner CG, O'Connor FL, Yeoh HC, Arora RC, Crayton JW. 1995. Hypodensity of platelet serotonin uptake sites in posttraumatic stress disorder: associated clinical features. Life Sci. 57:PL37–PL44.
  • Figee M, de Koning P, Klaassen S, Vulink N, Mantione M, van den Munckhof P, Schuurman R, van Wingen G, van Amelsvoort T, Booij J, et al. 2014. Deep brain stimulation induces striatal dopamine release in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 75:647–652.
  • Flament MF, Rapoport JL, Berg CJ, Sceery W, Kilts C, Mellstrom B, Linnoila M. 1985. Clomipramine treatment of childhood obsessive-compulsive disorder. A double-blind controlled study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 42:977–983.
  • Fluitman SB, Denys DA, Heijnen CJ, Westenberg HG. 2010. Disgust affects TNF-alpha, IL-6 and noradrenalin levels in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 35:906–911.
  • Foldager L, Kohler O, Steffensen R, Thiel S, Kristensen AS, Jensenius JC, Mors O. 2014. Bipolar and panic disorders may be associated with hereditary defects in the innate immune system. J Affect Disord. 164:148–154.
  • Franklin RA, Brodie C, Melamed I, Terada N, Lucas JJ, Gelfand EW. 1995. Nerve growth factor induces activation of MAP-kinase and p90rsk in human B lymphocytes. J Immunol. 154:4965–4972.
  • Fredrikson M, Sundin O, Frankenhaeuser M. 1985. Cortisol excretion during the defense reaction in humans. Psychosom Med. 47:313–319.
  • Fujimura Y, Yasuno F, Farris A, Liow JS, Geraci M, Drevets W, Pine DS, Ghose S, Lerner A, Hargreaves R, et al. 2009. Decreased neurokinin-1 (substance P) receptor binding in patients with panic disorder: positron emission tomographic study with [18F]SPA-RQ. Biol Psychiatry. 66:94–97.
  • Fujiwara A, Yoshida T, Otsuka T, Hayano F, Asami T, Narita H, Nakamura M, Inoue T, Hirayasu Y. 2011. Midbrain volume increase in patients with panic disorder. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 65:365–373.
  • Furlan PM, DeMartinis N, Schweizer E, Rickels K, Lucki I. 2001. Abnormal salivary cortisol levels in social phobic patients in response to acute psychological but not physical stress. Biol Psychiatry. 50:254–259.
  • Garakani A, Martinez JM, Aaronson CJ, Voustianiouk A, Kaufmann H, Gorman JM. 2009. Effect of medication and psychotherapy on heart rate variability in panic disorder. Depress Anxiety. 26:251–258.
  • Garner M, Attwood A, Baldwin DS, James A, Munafo MR. 2011. Inhalation of 7.5% carbon dioxide increases threat processing in humans. Neuropsychopharmacology. 36:1557–1562.
  • Garner M, Attwood A, Baldwin DS, Munafo MR. 2012. Inhalation of 7.5% carbon dioxide increases alerting and orienting attention network function. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 223:67–73.
  • Garvey MA, Perlmutter SJ, Allen AJ, Hamburger S, Lougee L, Leonard HL, Witowski ME, Dubbert B, Swedo SE. 1999. A pilot study of penicillin prophylaxis for neuropsychiatric exacerbations triggered by streptococcal infections. Biol Psychiatry. 45:1564–1571.
  • Gehring W, Coles MGH, Meyer DE, Donchin E. 1990. The error-related negativity: an event-related potential accompanying errors. Psychophysiology. 27:S34.
  • Gehring WJ, Himle J, Nisenson LG. 2000. Action-monitoring dysfunction in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychol Sci. 11:1–6.
  • George MS, Ward HE, Jr., Ninan PT, Pollack M, Nahas Z, Anderson B, Kose S, Howland RH, Goodman WK, Ballenger JC. 2008. A pilot study of vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) for treatment-resistant anxiety disorders. Brain Stimul. 1:112–121.
  • Geracioti TD, Jr., Jefferson-Wilson L, Strawn JR, Baker DG, Dashevsky BA, Horn PS, Ekhator NN. 2013. Effect of traumatic imagery on cerebrospinal fluid dopamine and serotonin metabolites in posttraumatic stress disorder. J Psychiatr Res. 47:995–998.
  • Gerra G, Zaimovic A, Zambelli U, Timpano M, Reali N, Bernasconi S, Brambilla F. 2000. Neuroendocrine responses to psychological stress in adolescents with anxiety disorder. Neuropsychobiology. 42:82–92.
  • Gill J, Vythilingam M, Page GG. 2008. Low cortisol, high DHEA, and high levels of stimulated TNF-alpha, and IL-6 in women with PTSD. J Trauma Stress. 21:530–539.
  • Gill JM, Saligan L, Woods S, Page G. 2009. PTSD is associated with an excess of inflammatory immune activities. Perspect Psychiatr Care. 45:262–277.
  • Gillan CM, Apergis-Schoute AM, Morein-Zamir S, Urcelay GP, Sule A, Fineberg NA, Sahakian BJ, Robbins TW. 2015. Functional neuroimaging of avoidance habits in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 172:284–293.
  • Gillan CM, Morein-Zamir S, Urcelay GP, Sule A, Voon V, Apergis-Schoute AM, Fineberg NA, Sahakian BJ, Robbins TW. 2014. Enhanced avoidance habits in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 75:631–638.
  • Gillan CM, Papmeyer M, Morein-Zamir S, Sahakian BJ, Fineberg NA, Robbins TW, de Wit S. 2011. Disruption in the balance between goal-directed behavior and habit learning in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 168:718–726.
  • Gillan CM, Robbins TW. 2014. Goal-directed learning and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Philos. Trans R Soc London B: Biol Sci. 369:20130475.
  • Goddard AW, Ball SG, Martinez J, Robinson MJ, Yang CR, Russell JM, Shekhar A. 2010. Current perspectives of the roles of the central norepinephrine system in anxiety and depression. Depress Anxiety. 27:339–350.
  • Goddard AW, Sholomskas DE, Walton KE, Augeri FM, Charney DS, Heninger GR, Goodman WK, Price LH. 1994. Effects of tryptophan depletion in panic disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 36:775–777.
  • Goetz RR, Gorman JM, Dillon DJ, Papp LA, Hollander E, Fyer AJ, Liebowitz MR, Klein DF. 1989. Do panic disorder patients indiscriminately endorse somatic complaints? Psychiatry Res. 29:207–213.
  • Goossens L, Leibold N, Peeters R, Esquivel G, Knuts I, Backes W, Marcelis M, Hofman P, Griez E, Schruers K. 2014. Brainstem response to hypercapnia: a symptom provocation study into the pathophysiology of panic disorder. J Psychopharmacol (Oxford). 28:449–456.
  • Gordon E, Palmer DM, Cooper N. 2010. EEG alpha asymmetry in schizophrenia, depression, PTSD, panic disorder, ADHD and conduct disorder. Clin EEG Neurosci. 41:178–183.
  • Gorman JM, Askanazi J, Liebowitz MR, Fyer AJ, Stein J, Kinney JM, Klein DF. 1984. Response to hyperventilation in a group of patients with panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 141:857–861.
  • Gorman JM, Battista D, Goetz RR, Dillon DJ, Liebowitz MR, Fyer AJ, Kahn JP, Sandberg D, Klein DF. 1989. A comparison of sodium bicarbonate and sodium lactate infusion in the induction of panic attacks. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 46:145–150.
  • Gorman JM, Fyer MR, Goetz R, Askanazi J, Liebowitz MR, Fyer AJ, Kinney J, Klein DF. 1988. Ventilatory physiology of patients with panic disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 45:31–39.
  • Gorman JM, Martinez J, Coplan JD, Kent J, Kleber M. 2004. The effect of successful treatment on the emotional and physiological response to carbon dioxide inhalation in patients with panic disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 56:862–867.
  • Gorman JM, Sloan RP. 2000. Heart rate variability in depressive and anxiety disorders. Am Heart J. 140:77–83.
  • Graeff FG, Zangrossi H. Jr., 2010. The dual role of serotonin in defense and the mode of action of antidepressants on generalized anxiety and panic disorders. Cent Nerv Syst Agents Med Chem. 10:207–217.
  • Grant JE, Odlaug BL, Chamberlain SR. 2011. A cognitive comparison of pathological skin picking and trichotillomania. J Psychiatr Res. 45:1634–1638.
  • Grant JE, Redden SA, Leppink EW, Odlaug BL. 2015. Skin picking disorder with co-occurring body dysmorphic disorder. Body Image. 15:44–48.
  • Gray J, McNaughton N. 2000. The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of septo-hippocampal system, 2nd ed. Oxford (UK): Oxford University Press, p. 440.
  • Griez EJ, Lousberg H, van den Hout MA, van der Molen GM. 1987. CO2 vulnerability in panic disorder. Psychiatry Res. 20:87–95.
  • Grutzmann R, Endrass T, Kaufmann C, Allen E, Eichele T, Kathmann N. 2014. Presupplementary motor area contributes to altered error monitoring in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biol Psychiatry. Advance online publication. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.12.010.
  • Gu BM, Park JY, Kang DH, Lee SJ, Yoo SY, Jo HJ, Choi CH, Lee JM, Kwon JS. 2008. Neural correlates of cognitive inflexibility during task-switching in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Brain. 131:155–164.
  • Guastella AJ, Howard AL, Dadds MR, Mitchell P, Carson DS. 2009. A randomized controlled trial of intranasal oxytocin as an adjunct to exposure therapy for social anxiety disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 34:917–923.
  • Gurguis GN, Blakeley JE, Antai-Otong D, Vo SP, Orsulak PJ, Petty F, Rush AJ. 1999. Adrenergic receptor function in panic disorder. II. Neutrophil beta 2 receptors: Gs protein coupling, effects of imipramine treatment and relationship to treatment outcome. J Psychiatr Res. 33:309–322.
  • Gustafsson PE, Gustafsson PA, Ivarsson T, Nelson N. 2008. Diurnal cortisol levels and cortisol response in youths with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neuropsychobiology. 57:14–21.
  • Hajcak G, Franklin ME, Foa EB, Simons RF. 2008. Increased error-related brain activity in pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder before and after treatment. Am J Psychiatry. 165:116–123.
  • Hajcak G, Moser JS, Yeung N, Simons RF. 2005. On the ERN and the significance of errors. Psychophysiology. 42:151–160.
  • Hanna GL, Carrasco M, Harbin SM, Nienhuis JK, LaRosa CE, Chen P, Fitzgerald KD, Gehring WJ. 2012. Error-related negativity and tic history in pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 51:902–910.
  • Hanna GL, Yuwiler A, Cantwell DP. 1991. Whole blood serotonin in juvenile obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 29:738–744.
  • Hasko G, Szabo C. 1998. Regulation of cytokine and chemokine production by transmitters and co-transmitters of the autonomic nervous system. Biochem Pharmacol. 56:1079–1087.
  • Heinrichs M, von Dawans B, Domes G. 2009. Oxytocin, vasopressin, and human social behavior. Front Neuroendocrinol. 30:548–557.
  • Hek K, Direk N, Newson RS, Hofman A, Hoogendijk WJ, Mulder CL, Tiemeier H. 2013. Anxiety disorders and salivary cortisol levels in older adults: a population-based study. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 38:300–305.
  • Heninger GR, Charney DS. 1988. Monoamine receptor systems and anxiety disorders. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 11:309–326.
  • Hernandez E, Lastra S, Urbina M, Carreira I, Lima L. 2002. Serotonin, 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid and serotonin transporter in blood peripheral lymphocytes of patients with generalized anxiety disorder. Int Immunopharmacol. 2:893–900.
  • Hoge EA, Brandstetter K, Moshier S, Pollack MH, Wong KK, Simon NM. 2009. Broad spectrum of cytokine abnormalities in panic disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder. Depress Anxiety. 26:447–455.
  • Hollander E, DelGiudice-Asch G, Simon L, Schmeidler J, Cartwright C, DeCaria CM, Kwon J, Cunningham-Rundles C, Chapman F, Zabriskie JB. 1999. B lymphocyte antigen D8/17 and repetitive behaviors in autism. Am J Psychiatry. 156:317–320.
  • Hollander E, Kwon J, Weiller F, Cohen L, Stein DJ, DeCaria C, Liebowitz M, Simeon D. 1998. Serotonergic function in social phobia: comparison to normal control and obsessive-compulsive disorder subjects. Psychiatry Res. 79:213–217.
  • Holsboer F, von Bardeleben U, Buller R, Heuser I, Steiger A. 1987. Stimulation response to corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) in patients with depression, alcoholism and panic disorder. Horm Metab Res Suppl. 16:80–88.
  • Hood SD, Bell CJ, Nutt DJ. 2005. Acute tryptophan depletion. Part I: rationale and methodology. Aust NZ J Psychiatry. 39:558–564.
  • Hood SD, Melichar JK, Taylor LG, Kalk N, Edwards TR, Hince DA, Lenox-Smith A, Lingford-Hughes AR, Nutt DJ. 2011. Noradrenergic function in generalized anxiety disorder: impact of treatment with venlafaxine on the physiological and psychological responses to clonidine challenge. J Psychopharmacol (Oxford). 25:78–86.
  • Hood SD, Potokar JP, Davies SJ, Hince DA, Morris K, Seddon KM, Nutt DJ, Argyropoulos SV. 2010. Dopaminergic challenges in social anxiety disorder: evidence for dopamine D3 desensitisation following successful treatment with serotonergic antidepressants. J Psychopharmacol (Oxford). 24:709–716.
  • Hounie AG, Cappi C, Cordeiro Q, Sampaio AS, Moraes I, Rosario MC, Palacios SA, Goldberg AC, Vallada HP, Machado-Lima A, et al. 2008. TNF-alpha polymorphisms are associated with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neurosci Lett. 442:86–90.
  • Humble M, Bejerot S, Bergqvist PB, Bengtsson F. 2001. Reactivity of serotonin in whole blood: relationship with drug response in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 49:360–368.
  • Humble M, Wistedt B. 1992. Serotonin, panic disorder and agoraphobia: short-term and long-term efficacy of citalopram in panic disorders. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 6:21–39.
  • Husby G, van de Rijn I, Zabriskie JB, Abdin ZH, Williams RC. Jr., 1976. Antibodies reacting with cytoplasm of subthalamic and caudate nuclei neurons in chorea and acute rheumatic fever. J Exp Med. 144:1094–1110.
  • Innis RB, Charney DS, Heninger GR. 1987. Differential 3H-imipramine platelet binding in patients with panic disorder and depression. Psychiatry Res. 21:33–41.
  • Iny LJ, Pecknold J, Suranyi Cadotte BE, Bernier B, Luthe L, Nair NP, Meaney MJ. 1994. Studies of a neurochemical link between depression, anxiety, and stress from [3H]imipramine and [3H]paroxetine binding on human platelets. Biol Psychiatry. 36:281–291.
  • Ischebeck M, Endrass T, Simon D, Kathmann N. 2014. Altered frontal EEG asymmetry in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychophysiology. 51:596–601.
  • Ising M, Hohne N, Siebertz A, Parchmann AM, Erhardt A, Keck M. 2012. Stress response regulation in panic disorder. Curr Pharm Des. 18:5675–5684.
  • Isingrini E, Perret L, Rainer Q, Amilhon B, Guma E, Tanti A, Martin G, Robinson J, Moquin L, Marti F, et al. 2016. Resilience to chronic stress is mediated by noradrenergic regulation of dopamine neurons. Nat Neurosci. 19:560–563.
  • Jacob TC, Moss SJ, Jurd R. 2008. GABA(A) receptor trafficking and its role in the dynamic modulation of neuronal inhibition. Nat Rev Neurosci. 9:331–343.
  • Jenkins MA, Langlais PJ, Delis D, Cohen R. 1998. Learning and memory in rape victims with posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 155:278–279.
  • Jockers-Scherubl MC, Zubraegel D, Baer T, Linden M, Danker-Hopfe H, Schulte-Herbruggen O, Neu P, Hellweg R. 2007. Nerve growth factor serum concentrations rise after successful cognitive-behavioural therapy of generalized anxiety disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 31:200–204.
  • Johnson MR, Lydiard RB, Zealberg JJ, Fossey MD, Ballenger JC. 1994. Plasma and CSF HVA levels in panic patients with comorbid social phobia. Biol Psychiatry. 36:425–427.
  • Johnson PL, Lightman SL, Lowry CA. 2004. A functional subset of serotonergic neurons in the rat ventrolateral periaqueductal gray implicated in the inhibition of sympathoexcitation and panic. Ann NY Acad Sci. 1018:58–64.
  • Johnson PL, Samuels BC, Fitz SD, Lightman SL, Lowry CA, Shekhar A. 2012. Activation of the orexin 1 receptor is a critical component of CO2-mediated anxiety and hypertension but not bradycardia. Neuropsychopharmacology. 37:1911–1922.
  • Kalin NH, Shelton SE, Rickman M, Davidson RJ. 1998. Individual differences in freezing and cortisol in infant and mother rhesus monkeys. Behav Neurosci. 112:251–254.
  • Kalueff AV, Nutt DJ. 2007. Role of GABA in anxiety and depression. Depress Anxiety. 24:495–517.
  • Kang Y. 2010. Psychological stress-induced changes in salivary alpha-amylase and adrenergic activity. Nurs Health Sci. 12:477–484.
  • Kansy JW, Katsovich L, McIver KS, Pick J, Zabriskie JB, Lombroso PJ, Leckman JF, Bibb JA. 2006. Identification of pyruvate kinase as an antigen associated with Tourette syndrome. J Neuroimmunol. 181:165–176.
  • Katzman MA, Koszycki D, Bradwejn J. 2004. Effects of CCK-tetrapeptide in patients with social phobia and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Depress Anxiety. 20:51–58.
  • Kawachi I, Colditz GA, Ascherio A, Rimm EB, Giovannucci E, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC. 1994. Prospective study of phobic anxiety and risk of coronary heart disease in men. Circulation. 89:1992–1997.
  • Kawano A, Tanaka Y, Ishitobi Y, Maruyama Y, Ando T, Inoue A, Okamoto S, Imanaga J, Kanehisa M, Higuma H, et al. 2013. Salivary alpha-amylase and cortisol responsiveness following electrical stimulation stress in obsessive-compulsive disorder patients. Psychiatry Res. 209:85–90.
  • Kaye J, Buchanan F, Kendrick A, Johnson P, Lowry C, Bailey J, Nutt D, Lightman S. 2004. Acute carbon dioxide exposure in healthy adults: evaluation of a novel means of investigating the stress response. J Neuroendocrinol. 16:256–264.
  • Kellner M, Herzog L, Yassouridis A, Holsboer F, Wiedemann K. 1995. Possible role of atrial natriuretic hormone in pituitary-adrenocortical unresponsiveness in lactate-induced panic. Am J Psychiatry. 152:1365–1367.
  • Kellner M, Wiedemann K, Holsboer F. 1992. Atrial natriuretic factor inhibits the CRH-stimulated secretion of ACTH and cortisol in man. Life Sci. 50:1835–1842.
  • Kellner M, Wiedemann K, Yassouridis A, Muhtz C. 2012. Non-response of cortisol during stressful exposure therapy in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder-preliminary results. Psychiatry Res. 199:111–114.
  • Khanna S, Ravi V, Shenoy PK, Chandramuki A, Channabasavanna SM. 1997. Cerebrospinal fluid viral antibodies in obsessive-compulsive disorder in an Indian population. Biol Psychiatry. 41:883–890.
  • Kim YK, Na KS, Shin KH, Jung HY, Choi SH, Kim JB. 2007. Cytokine imbalance in the pathophysiology of major depressive disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 31:1044–1053.
  • Kim YR, Park Q, Yu BH. 2004. Changes in lymphocyte subsets after short-term pharmacotherapy in patients with panic disorder. Psychiatry Res. 128:183–190.
  • Kirsch P, Esslinger C, Chen Q, Mier D, Lis S, Siddhanti S, Gruppe H, Mattay VS, Gallhofer B, Meyer-Lindenberg A. 2005. Oxytocin modulates neural circuitry for social cognition and fear in humans. J Neurosci. 25:11489–11493.
  • Kirvan CA, Swedo SE, Heuser JS, Cunningham MW. 2003. Mimicry and autoantibody-mediated neuronal cell signaling in Sydenham chorea. Nat Med. 9:914–920.
  • Kirvan CA, Swedo SE, Snider LA, Cunningham MW. 2006. Antibody-mediated neuronal cell signaling in behavior and movement disorders. J Neuroimmunol. 179:173–179.
  • Klawohn J, Riesel A, Grutzmann R, Kathmann N, Endrass T. 2014. Performance monitoring in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a temporo-spatial principal component analysis. Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci. 14:983–995.
  • Klein DF. 1993. Panic disorder with agoraphobia [letter]. Br J Psychiatry. 163:835–837.
  • Klein E, Zinder O, Colin V, Zilberman I, Levy N, Greenberg A, Lenox RH. 1995. Clinical similarity and biological diversity in the response to alprazolam in patients with panic disorder and generalized anxiety disorder. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 92:399–408.
  • Klein E, Zohar J, Geraci MF, Murphy DL, Uhde TW. 1991. Anxiogenic effects of m-CPP in patients with panic disorder: comparison to caffeine's anxiogenic effects. Biol Psychiatry. 30:973–984.
  • Kluge M, Schussler P, Kunzel HE, Dresler M, Yassouridis A, Steiger A. 2007. Increased nocturnal secretion of ACTH and cortisol in obsessive compulsive disorder. J Psychiatr Res. 41:928–933.
  • Knopf K, Possel P. 2009. Individual response differences in spider phobia: comparing phobic and non-phobic women of different reactivity levels. Anxiety Stress Coping. 22:39–55.
  • Kobayashi K, Shimizu E, Hashimoto K, Mitsumori M, Koike K, Okamura N, Koizumi H, Ohgake S, Matsuzawa D, Zhang L, et al. 2005. Serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels in patients with panic disorder: as a biological predictor of response to group cognitive behavioral therapy. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 29:658–663.
  • Koff WC, Dunegan MA. 1985. Modulation of macrophage-mediated tumoricidal activity by neuropeptides and neurohormones. J Immunol. 135:350–354.
  • Koh KB, Lee BK. 1998. Reduced lymphocyte proliferation and interleukin-2 production in anxiety disorders. Psychosom Med. 60:479–483.
  • Koh KB, Lee Y. 2004. Reduced anxiety level by therapeutic interventions and cell-mediated immunity in panic disorder patients. Psychother Psychosom. 73:286–292.
  • Koprivova J, Congedo M, Horacek J, Prasko J, Raszka M, Brunovsky M, Kohutova B, Hoschl C. 2011. EEG source analysis in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Clin Neurophysiol. 122:1735–1743.
  • Kosfeld M, Heinrichs M, Zak PJ, Fischbacher U, Fehr E. 2005. Oxytocin increases trust in humans. Nature. 435:673–676.
  • Kovacic Z, Henigsberg N, Pivac N, Nedic G, Borovecki A. 2008. Platelet serotonin concentration and suicidal behavior in combat related posttraumatic stress disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 32:544–551.
  • Kramer M, Seefeldt WL, Heinrichs N, Tuschen-Caffier B, Schmitz J, Wolf OT, Blechert J. 2012. Subjective, autonomic, and endocrine reactivity during social stress in children with social phobia. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 40:95–104.
  • Kremer HP, Goekoop JG, Van Kempen GM. 1990. Clinical use of the determination of serotonin in whole blood. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 10:83–87.
  • Kronenberg G, Berger P, Tauber RF, Bandelow B, Henkel V, Heuser I. 2005. Randomized, double-blind study of SR142801 (Osanetant). A novel neurokinin-3 (NK3) receptor antagonist in panic disorder with pre- and posttreatment cholecystokinin tetrapeptide (CCK-4) challenges. Pharmacopsychiatry. 38:24–29.
  • La Rovere MT, Pinna GD, Maestri R, Mortara A, Capomolla S, Febo O, Ferrari R, Franchini M, Gnemmi M, Opasich C, et al. 2003. Short-term heart rate variability strongly predicts sudden cardiac death in chronic heart failure patients. Circulation. 107:565–570.
  • Lambert GW, Kaye DM, Cox HS, Vaz M, Turner AG, Jennings GL, Esler MD. 1995. Regional 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid production in humans. Life Sci. 57:255–267.
  • Lambiase A, Bracci-Laudiero L, Bonini S, Bonini S, Starace G, D'Elios MM, De Carli M, Aloe L. 1997. Human CD4+ T cell clones produce and release nerve growth factor and express high-affinity nerve growth factor receptors. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 100:408–414.
  • Lang UE, Hellweg R, Bajbouj M, Gaus V, Sander T, Gallinat J. 2008. Gender-dependent association of a functional NGF polymorphism with anxiety-related personality traits. Pharmacopsychiatry. 41:196–199.
  • Larson MR, Ader R, Moynihan JA. 2001. Heart rate, neuroendocrine, and immunological reactivity in response to an acute laboratory stressor. Psychosom Med. 63:493–501.
  • Le Merrer J, Becker JA, Befort K, Kieffer BL. 2009. Reward processing by the opioid system in the brain. Physiol Rev. 89:1379–1412.
  • Lee IS, Kim KJ, Kang EH, Yu BH. 2008. beta-adrenoceptor affinity as a biological predictor of treatment response to paroxetine in patients with acute panic disorder. J Affect Disord. 110:156–160.
  • Lee SH, Yoon S, Kim JI, Jin SH, Chung CK. 2014. Functional connectivity of resting state EEG and symptom severity in patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 51:51–57.
  • Lehrner A, Yehuda R. 2014. Biomarkers of PTSD: military applications and considerations. Eur J Psychotraumatol. 5:23797.
  • Leibold NK, van den Hove DL, Esquivel G, De Cort K, Goossens L, Strackx E, Buchanan GF, Steinbusch HW, Lesch KP, Schruers KR. 2015. The brain acid-base homeostasis and serotonin: a perspective on the use of carbon dioxide as human and rodent experimental model of panic. Prog Neurobiol. 129:58–78.
  • Leicht G, Mulert C, Eser D, Samann PG, Ertl M, Laenger A, Karch S, Pogarell O, Meindl T, Czisch M, et al. 2013. Benzodiazepines counteract rostral anterior cingulate cortex activation induced by cholecystokinin-tetrapeptide in humans. Biol Psychiatry. 73:337–344.
  • Lenze EJ, Mantella RC, Shi P, Goate AM, Nowotny P, Butters MA, Andreescu C, Thompson PA, Rollman BL. 2011. Elevated cortisol in older adults with generalized anxiety disorder is reduced by treatment: a placebo-controlled evaluation of escitalopram. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 19:482–490.
  • Levi-Montalcini R, Dal Toso R, della Valle F, Skaper SD, Leon A. 1995. Update of the NGF saga. J Neurol Sci. 130:119–127.
  • Levin AP, Doran AR, Liebowitz MR, Fyer AJ, Gorman JM, Klein DF, Paul SM. 1987. Pituitary adrenocortical unresponsiveness in lactate-induced panic. Psychiatry Res. 21:23–32.
  • Levy-Gigi E, Keri S, Myers CE, Lencovsky Z, Sharvit-Benbaji H, Orr SP, Gilbertson MW, Servatius RJ, Tsao JW, Gluck MA. 2012. Individuals with posttraumatic stress disorder show a selective deficit in generalization of associative learning. Neuropsychology. 26:758–767.
  • Lewis DA, Noyes R, Jr., Coryell W, Clancy J. 1985. Tritiated imipramine binding to platelets is decreased in patients with agoraphobia. Psychiatry Res. 16:1–9.
  • Li H, Ohta H, Izumi H, Matsuda Y, Seki M, Toda T, Akiyama M, Matsushima Y, Goto Y, Kaga M, et al. 2013. Behavioral and cortical EEG evaluations confirm the roles of both CCKA and CCKB receptors in mouse CCK-induced anxiety. Behav Brain Res. 237:325–332.
  • Liao D, Barnes RW, Chambless LE, Simpson RJ, Jr., Sorlie P, Heiss G. 1995. Age, race, and sex differences in autonomic cardiac function measured by spectral analysis of heart rate variability–the ARIC study. Atherosclerosis risk in communities. Am J Cardiol. 76:906–912.
  • Libby P. 2002. Inflammation in atherosclerosis. Nature. 420:868–874.
  • Liebowitz MR, Gorman JM, Fyer AJ, Levitt M, Dillon D, Levy G, Appleby IL, Anderson S, Palij M, Davies SO, et al. 1985. Lactate provocation of panic attacks. II. Biochemical and physiological findings. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 42:709–719.
  • Lilliecreutz C, Theodorsson E, Sydsjo G, Josefsson A. 2011. Salivary cortisol in pregnant women suffering from blood and injection phobia. Arch Womens Ment Health. 14:405–411.
  • Lista AL. 1989. Differential rates of urinary noradrenalin excretion in affective disorders: utility of a short time sampling procedure. Psychiatry Res. 30:253–258.
  • Lobo I, Portugal LC, Figueira I, Volchan E, David I, Garcia Pereira M, de Oliveira L. 2015. EEG correlates of the severity of posttraumatic stress symptoms: A systematic review of the dimensional PTSD literature. J Affect Disord. 183:210–220.
  • Lopez AL, Kathol RG, Noyes R. Jr., 1990. Reduction in urinary free cortisol during benzodiazepine treatment of panic disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 15:23–28.
  • Low K, Crestani F, Keist R, Benke D, Brunig I, Benson JA, Fritschy JM, Rulicke T, Bluethmann H, Mohler H, et al. 2000. Molecular and neuronal substrate for the selective attenuation of anxiety. Science. 290:131–134.
  • Lydiard RB, Ballenger JC, Laraia MT, Fossey MD, Beinfeld MC. 1992. CSF cholecystokinin concentrations in patients with panic disorder and in normal comparison subjects. Am J Psychiatry. 149:691–693.
  • Maes M, Meltzer HY, Bosmans E. 1994. Psychoimmune investigation in obsessive-compulsive disorder: assays of plasma transferrin, IL-2 and IL-6 receptor, and IL-1 beta and IL-6 concentrations. Neuropsychobiology. 30:57–60.
  • Maina G, Albert U, Bogetto F, Borghese C, Berro AC, Mutani R, Rossi F, Vigliani MC. 2009. Anti-brain antibodies in adult patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Affect Disord. 116:192–200.
  • Maltby N, Tolin DF, Worhunsky P, O'Keefe TM, Kiehl KA. 2005. Dysfunctional action monitoring hyperactivates frontal-striatal circuits in obsessive-compulsive disorder: an event-related fMRI study. Neuroimage. 24:495–503.
  • Manoach DS, Agam Y. 2013. Neural markers of errors as endophenotypes in neuropsychiatric disorders. Front Hum Neurosci. 7:350.
  • Mantella RC, Butters MA, Amico JA, Mazumdar S, Rollman BL, Begley AE, Reynolds CF, Lenze EJ. 2008. Salivary cortisol is associated with diagnosis and severity of late-life generalized anxiety disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 33:773–781.
  • Marazziti D, Hollander E, Lensi P, Ravagli S, Cassano GB. 1992. Peripheral markers of serotonin and dopamine function in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatry Res. 42:41–51.
  • Marazziti D, Presta S, Pfanner C, Gemignani A, Rossi A, Sbrana S, Rocchi V, Ambrogi F, Cassano GB. 1999. Immunological alterations in adult obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 46:810–814.
  • Marazziti D, Rossi A, Gemignani A, Giannaccini G, Pfanner C, Milanfranchi A, Presta S, Lucacchini A, Cassano GB. 1996. Decreased platelet 3H-paroxetine binding in obsessive-compulsive patients. Neuropsychobiology. 34:184–187.
  • Marshall RD, Blanco C, Printz D, Liebowitz MR, Klein DF, Coplan J. 2002. A pilot study of noradrenergic and HPA axis functioning in PTSD vs. panic disorder. Psychiatry Res. 110:219–230.
  • Martel FL, Hayward C, Lyons DM, Sanborn K, Varady S, Schatzberg AF. 1999. Salivary cortisol levels in socially phobic adolescent girls. Depress Anxiety. 10:25–27.
  • Martin EI, Ressler KJ, Binder E, Nemeroff CB. 2010. The neurobiology of anxiety disorders: brain imaging, genetics, and psychoneuroendocrinology. Clin Lab Med. 30:865–891.
  • Masdrakis VG, Markianos M, Oulis P. 2015. Lack of specific association between panicogenic properties of caffeine and HPA-axis activation. A placebo-controlled study of caffeine challenge in patients with panic disorder. Psychiatry Res. 229:75–81.
  • Mason ST, Angel A. 1984. Chronic and acute administration of typical and atypical antidepressants on activity of brain noradrenaline systems in the rat thiopentone anaesthesia model. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 84:304–309.
  • Mathews CA, Badner JA, Andresen JM, Sheppard B, Himle JA, Grant JE, Williams KA, Chavira DA, Azzam A, Schwartz M, et al. 2012. Genome-wide linkage analysis of obsessive-compulsive disorder implicates chromosome 1p36. Biol Psychiatry. 72:629–636.
  • Mathias CJ. 2002. To stand on one's own legs. Clin Med (Lond). 2:237–245.
  • McIntyre IM, Judd FK, Burrows GD, Norman TR. 1989. Serotonin in panic disorder: platelet uptake and concentration. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 4:1–6.
  • McNally RJ. 2007. Dispelling confusion about traumatic dissociative amnesia. Mayo Clin Proc. 82:1083–1090.
  • McNaughton N, Corr PJ. 2004. A two-dimensional neuropsychology of defense: fear/anxiety and defensive distance. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 28:285–305.
  • Melloni M, Urbistondo C, Sedeno L, Gelormini C, Kichic R, Ibanez A. 2012. The extended fronto-striatal model of obsessive compulsive disorder: convergence from event-related potentials, neuropsychology and neuroimaging. Front Hum Neurosci. 6:259.
  • Menzies L, Chamberlain SR, Laird AR, Thelen SM, Sahakian BJ, Bullmore ET. 2008. Integrating evidence from neuroimaging and neuropsychological studies of obsessive-compulsive disorder: the orbitofronto-striatal model revisited. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 32:525–549.
  • Meyer T, Smeets T, Giesbrecht T, Quaedflieg CW, Smulders FT, Meijer EH, Merckelbach HL. 2015. The role of frontal EEG asymmetry in post-traumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychol. 108:62–77.
  • Michelgard A, Appel L, Pissiota A, Frans O, Langstrom B, Bergstrom M, Fredrikson M. 2007. Symptom provocation in specific phobia affects the substance P neurokinin-1 receptor system. Biol Psychiatry. 61:1002–1006.
  • Miguel EC, Leckman JF, Rauch S, do Rosario-Campos MC, Hounie AG, Mercadante MT, Chacon P, Pauls DL. 2005. Obsessive-compulsive disorder phenotypes: implications for genetic studies. Mol Psychiatry. 10:258–275.
  • Miller RJ, Sutherland AG, Hutchison JD, Alexander DA. 2001. C-reactive protein and interleukin 6 receptor in post-traumatic stress disorder: a pilot study. Cytokine. 13:253–255.
  • Millet B, Touitou Y, Poirier MF, Bourdel MC, Hantouche E, Bogdan A, Olie JP. 1998. Plasma melatonin and cortisol in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder: relationship with axillary temperature, physical activity, and clinical symptoms. Biol Psychiatry. 44:874–881.
  • Mittleman BB, Castellanos FX, Jacobsen LK, Rapoport JL, Swedo SE, Shearer GM. 1997. Cerebrospinal fluid cytokines in pediatric neuropsychiatric disease. J Immunol. 159:2994–2999.
  • Mobbs D, Petrovic P, Marchant JL, Hassabis D, Weiskopf N, Seymour B, Dolan RJ, Frith CD. 2007. When fear is near: threat imminence elicits prefrontal-periaqueductal gray shifts in humans. Science. 317:1079–1083.
  • Molendijk ML, Bus BA, Spinhoven P, Penninx BW, Prickaerts J, Oude Voshaar RC, Elzinga BM. 2012. Gender specific associations of serum levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in anxiety. World J Biol Psychiatry. 13:535–543.
  • Morein-Zamir S, Papmeyer M, Pertusa A, Chamberlain SR, Fineberg NA, Sahakian BJ, Mataix-Cols D, Robbins TW. 2014. The profile of executive function in OCD hoarders and hoarding disorder. Psychiatry Res. 215:659–667.
  • Morer A, Lazaro L, Sabater L, Massana J, Castro J, Graus F. 2008. Antineuronal antibodies in a group of children with obsessive-compulsive disorder and Tourette syndrome. J Psychiatr Res. 42:64–68.
  • Morer A, Vinas O, Lazaro L, Calvo R, Andres S, Bosch J, Gasto C, Massana J, Castro J. 2006. Subtyping obsessive-compulsive disorder: clinical and immunological findings in child and adult onset. J Psychiatr Res. 40:207–213.
  • Morris MC, Compas BE, Garber J. 2012. Relations among posttraumatic stress disorder, comorbid major depression, and HPA function: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Psychol Rev. 32:301–315.
  • Murphy ML, Pichichero ME. 2002. Prospective identification and treatment of children with pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorder associated with group A streptococcal infection (PANDAS). Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 156:356–361.
  • Murphy TK, Goodman WK, Fudge MW, Williams RC, Jr., Ayoub EM, Dalal M, Lewis MH, Zabriskie JB. 1997. B lymphocyte antigen D8/17: a peripheral marker for childhood-onset obsessive-compulsive disorder and Tourette's syndrome? Am J Psychiatry. 154:402–407.
  • Myint AM, Kim YK. 2014. Network beyond IDO in psychiatric disorders: revisiting neurodegeneration hypothesis. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 48:304–313.
  • Najjar S, Pearlman DM, Alper K, Najjar A, Devinsky O. 2013. Neuroinflammation and psychiatric illness. J Neuroinflammation. 10:43
  • Nesse RM, Cameron OG, Curtis GC, McCann DS, Huber-Smith MJ. 1984. Adrenergic function in patients with panic anxiety. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 41:771–776.
  • Nesse RM, Curtis GC, Thyer BA, McCann DS, Huber-Smith MJ, Knopf RF. 1985. Endocrine and cardiovascular responses during phobic anxiety. Psychosom Med. 47:320–332.
  • Nicolini H, Lopez Y, Genis-Mendoza AD, Manrique V, Lopez-Canovas L, Niubo E, Hernandez L, Bobes MA, Riveron AM, Lopez-Casamichana M, et al. 2015. Detection of anti-streptococcal, antienolase, and anti-neural antibodies in subjects with early-onset psychiatric disorders. Actas Esp Psiquiatr. 43:35–41.
  • Nielen MM, Den Boer JA. 2003. Neuropsychological performance of OCD patients before and after treatment with fluoxetine: evidence for persistent cognitive deficits. Psychol Med. 33:917–925.
  • Norman TR, Judd FK, Burrows GD, McIntyre IM. 1989a. Platelet serotonin uptake in panic disorder patients: a replication study. Psychiatry Res. 30:63–68.
  • Norman TR, Judd FK, Gregory M, James RH, Kimber NM, McIntyre IM, Burrows GD. 1986. Platelet serotonin uptake in panic disorder. J Affect Disord. 11:69–72.
  • Norman TR, Sartor DM, Judd FK, Burrows GD, Gregory MS, McIntyre IM. 1989b. Platelet serotonin uptake and 3H-imipramine binding in panic disorder. J Affect Disord. 17:77–81.
  • Nutt DJ. 1989. Altered central alpha 2-adrenoceptor sensitivity in panic disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 46:165–169.
  • Nutt DJ, Fraser S. 1987. Platelet binding studies in panic disorder. J Affect Disord. 12:7–11.
  • Nutt DJ, Glue P. 1991. Imipramine in panic disorder. 1. Clinical response and pharmacological changes. J Psychopharmacol (Oxford). 5:56–64.
  • Nutt DJ, Glue P, Lawson C, Wilson S. 1990. Flumazenil provocation of panic attacks. Evidence for altered benzodiazepine receptor sensitivity in panic disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 47:917–925.
  • O'Sullivan K, Newman EF. 2014. Neuropsychological impairments in panic disorder: a systematic review. J Affect Disord. 167:268–284.
  • O'Toole MS, Pedersen AD. 2011. A systematic review of neuropsychological performance in social anxiety disorder. Nord J Psychiatry. 65:147–161.
  • O'Toole MS, Pedersen AD, Hougaard E, Rosenberg NK. 2015. Neuropsychological test performance in social anxiety disorder. Nord J Psychiatry. 69:444–452.
  • O'Toole SA, Weinborn M, Fox AM. 2012. Performance monitoring among non-patients with obsessive-compulsive symptoms: ERP evidence of aberrant feedback monitoring. Biol Psychol. 91:221.
  • Odlaug BL, Chamberlain SR, Derbyshire KL, Leppink EW, Grant JE. 2014. Impaired response inhibition and excess cortical thickness as candidate endophenotypes for trichotillomania. J Psychiatr Res. 59:167–173.
  • Odlaug BL, Chamberlain SR, Grant JE. 2010. Motor inhibition and cognitive flexibility in pathologic skin picking. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 34:208–211
  • Odlaug BL, Chamberlain SR, Harvanko AM, Grant JE. 2012. Age at onset in trichotillomania:clinical variables and neurocognitive performance. Prim Care Companion CNS Disord. 14(4).
  • Okasha A, Bishry Z, Khalil AH, Darwish TA, el Dawla AS, Shohdy A. 1994. Panic disorder. An overlapping or independent entity? Br J Psychiatry. 164:818–825.
  • Olson R. 2002. GABA. In Davis KL, Charney D, Coyle JT, editors. Neuropsychopharmacology The Fifth Generation of Progress; An Official Publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology. Philadelphia, PA: LWW (PE), p. 150–168.
  • Otten U, Baumann JB, Girard J. 1979. Stimulation of the pituitary-adrenocortical axis by nerve growth factor. Nature. 282:413–414.
  • Owen DR, Lewis AJ, Reynolds R, Rupprecht R, Eser D, Wilkins MR, Bennacef I, Nutt DJ, Parker CA. 2011. Variation in binding affinity of the novel anxiolytic XBD173 for the 18 kDa translocator protein in human brain. Synapse. 65:257–259.
  • Pagani M, Lombardi F, Guzzetti S, Sandrone G, Rimoldi O, Malfatto G, Cerutti S, Malliani A. 1984. Power spectral density of heart rate variability as an index of sympatho-vagal interaction in normal and hypertensive subjects. J Hypertens Suppl. 2:S383–S385.
  • Paine NJ, Watkins LL, Blumenthal JA, Kuhn CM, Sherwood A. 2015. Association of depressive and anxiety symptoms with 24-hour urinary catecholamines in individuals with untreated high blood pressure. Psychosom Med. 77:136–144.
  • Pallanti S, Tofani T, Zanardelli M, Di Cesare Mannelli L, Ghelardini C. 2014. BDNF and Artemin are increased in drug-naïve non-depressed GAD patients: preliminary data. Int J Psychiatry Clin Pract. 18:255–260.
  • Papadopoulos A, Rich A, Nutt DJ, Bailey JE. 2010. The effects of single dose anxiolytic medication on the CO2 models of anxiety: differentiation of subjective and objective measures. J Psychopharmacol (Oxford). 24:649–656.
  • Papadopoulos V, Baraldi M, Guilarte TR, Knudsen TB, Lacapere JJ, Lindemann P, Norenberg MD, Nutt D, Weizman A, Zhang MR, et al. 2006. Translocator protein (18kDa): new nomenclature for the peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptor based on its structure and molecular function. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 27:402–409.
  • Papp LA, Martinez JM, Klein DF, Coplan JD, Norman RG, Cole R, de Jesus MJ, Ross D, Goetz R, Gorman JM. 1997. Respiratory psychophysiology of panic disorder: three respiratory challenges in 98 subjects. Am J Psychiatry. 154:1557–1565.
  • Paterson JL, Reynolds AC, Ferguson SA, Dawson D. 2013. Sleep and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Sleep Med Rev. 17:465–474.
  • Pavlov VA. 2008. Cholinergic modulation of inflammation. Int J Clin Exp Med. 1:203–212.
  • Pavlov VA, Parrish WR, Rosas-Ballina M, Ochani M, Puerta M, Ochani K, Chavan S, Al-Abed Y, Tracey KJ. 2009. Brain acetylcholinesterase activity controls systemic cytokine levels through the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway. Brain Behav Immun. 23:41–45.
  • Pavlov VA, Tracey KJ. 2005. The cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway. Brain Behav Immun. 19:493–499.
  • Pavone P, Bianchini R, Parano E, Incorpora G, Rizzo R, Mazzone L, Trifiletti RR. 2004. Anti-brain antibodies in PANDAS versus uncomplicated streptococcal infection. Pediatr Neurol. 30:107–110.
  • Pecknold JC, Chang H, Fleury D, Koszychi D, Quirion R, Nair NP, Suranyi-Cadotte BE. 1987. Platelet imipramine binding in patients with panic disorder and major familial depression. J Psychiatr Res. 21:319–326.
  • Pecknold JC, Suranyi-Cadotte B, Chang H, Nair NP. 1988. Serotonin uptake in panic disorder and agoraphobia. Neuropsychopharmacology. 1:173–176.
  • Perlmutter SJ, Leitman SF, Garvey MA, Hamburger S, Feldman E, Leonard HL, Swedo SE. 1999. Therapeutic plasma exchange and intravenous immunoglobulin for obsessive-compulsive disorder and tic disorders in childhood. Lancet. 354:1153–1158.
  • Pervanidou P, Kolaitis G, Charitaki S, Lazaropoulou C, Papassotiriou I, Hindmarsh P, Bakoula C, Tsiantis J, Chrousos GP. 2007. The natural history of neuroendocrine changes in pediatric posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after motor vehicle accidents: progressive divergence of noradrenaline and cortisol concentrations over time. Biol Psychiatry. 62:1095–1102.
  • Petrowski K, Wintermann GB, Schaarschmidt M, Bornstein SR, Kirschbaum C. 2013. Blunted salivary and plasma cortisol response in patients with panic disorder under psychosocial stress. Int J Psychophysiol. 88:35–39.
  • Phillips AC, Batty GD, Gale CR, Lord JM, Arlt W, Carroll D. 2011. Major depressive disorder, generalised anxiety disorder, and their comorbidity: associations with cortisol in the Vietnam Experience Study. Psychoneuroendocrinology 36:682–690.
  • Pine DS, Coplan JD, Papp LA, Klein RG, Martinez JM, Kovalenko P, Tancer N, Moreau D, Dummit ES, 3rd, Shaffer D, et al. 1998. Ventilatory physiology of children and adolescents with anxiety disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 55:123–129.
  • Pine DS, Klein RG, Coplan JD, Papp LA, Hoven CW, Martinez J, Kovalenko P, Mandell DJ, Moreau D, Klein DF, et al. 2000. Differential carbon dioxide sensitivity in childhood anxiety disorders and nonill comparison group. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 57:960–967.
  • Pini S, Martini C, Abelli M, Muti M, Gesi C, Montali M, Chelli B, Lucacchini A, Cassano GB. 2005. Peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptor binding sites in platelets of patients with panic disorder associated to separation anxiety symptoms. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 181:407–411.
  • Pinkney V, Bamford S, Baldwin DS, Munafo MR, Garner M. 2014. The effects of duloxetine on subjective, autonomic and neurocognitive response to 7.5% carbon dioxide challenge. European Neuropsychopharmacology. 24:S579-S579.
  • Pitman RK, Orr SP, Lasko NB. 1993. Effects of intranasal vasopressin and oxytocin on physiologic responding during personal combat imagery in Vietnam veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Res. 48:107–117.
  • Plag J, Gaudlitz K, Schumacher S, Dimeo F, Bobbert T, Kirschbaum C, Strohle A. 2014. Effect of combined cognitive-behavioural therapy and endurance training on cortisol and salivary alpha-amylase in panic disorder. J Psychiatr Res. 58:12–19.
  • Poma SZ, Merlo-Pich E, Bettica P, Bani M, Fina P, Ziviani L, Milleri S. 2014. Anxiolytic effects of vestipitant in a sub-group of healthy volunteers known to be sensitive to CO2 challenge. J Psychopharmacol. 28:491–497.
  • Poma SZ, Milleri S, Squassante L, Nucci G, Bani M, Perini GI, Merlo-Pich E. 2005. Characterization of a 7% carbon dioxide (CO2) inhalation paradigm to evoke anxiety symptoms in healthy subjects. J Psychopharmacol (Oxford). 19:494–503.
  • Pomara N, Willoughby LM, Sidtis JJ, Cooper TB, Greenblatt DJ. 2005. Cortisol response to diazepam: its relationship to age, dose, duration of treatment, and presence of generalized anxiety disorder. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 178:1–8.
  • Porges SW. 2001. The polyvagal theory: phylogenetic substrates of a social nervous system. Int J Psychophysiol. 42:123–146.
  • Potts NL, Davidson JR, Krishnan KR, Doraiswamy PM, Ritchie JC. 1991. Levels of urinary free cortisol in social phobia. J Clin Psychiatry. 52(Suppl):41–42.
  • Rapaport MH, Risch SC, Golshan S, Gillin JC. 1989. Neuroendocrine effects of ovine corticotropin-releasing hormone in panic disorder patients. Biol Psychiatry. 26:344–348.
  • Rapaport MH, Stein MB. 1994. Serum interleukin-2 and soluble interleukin-2 receptor levels in generalized social phobia. Anxiety. 1:50–53.
  • Rauch SL, Shin LM, Dougherty DD, Alpert NM, Fischman AJ, Jenike MA. 2002. Predictors of fluvoxamine response in contamination-related obsessive compulsive disorder: a PET symptom provocation study. Neuropsychopharmacology. 27:782–791.
  • Ravindran AV, Griffiths J, Merali Z, Anisman H. 1999. Circulating lymphocyte subsets in obsessive compulsive disorder, major depression and normal controls. J Affect Disord. 52:1–10.
  • Redmond DE, Jr., Huang YH. 1979. Current concepts. II. New evidence for a locus coeruleus-norepinephrine connection with anxiety. Life Sci. 25:2149–2162.
  • Remijnse PL, Nielen MM, van Balkom AJ, Cath DC, van Oppen P, Uylings HB, Veltman DJ. 2006. Reduced orbitofrontal-striatal activity on a reversal learning task in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 63:1225–1236.
  • Richerson GB, Wang W, Tiwari J, Bradley SR. 2001. Chemosensitivity of serotonergic neurons in the rostral ventral medulla. Respir Physiol. 129:175–189.
  • Riesel A, Endrass T, Kaufmann C, Kathmann N. 2011. Overactive error-related brain activity as a candidate endophenotype for obsessive-compulsive disorder: evidence from unaffected first-degree relatives. Am J Psychiatry. 168:317–324.
  • Riesel A, Kathmann N, Endrass T. 2014. Overactive performance monitoring in obsessive-compulsive disorder is independent of symptom expression. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 264:707–717.
  • Riesel A, Weinberg A, Endrass T, Kathmann N, Hajcak G. 2012. Punishment has a lasting impact on error-related brain activity. Psychophysiology. 49:239–247.
  • Roberson-Nay R, Klein DF, Klein RG, Mannuzza S, Moulton JL, 3rd, Guardino M, Pine DS. 2010. Carbon dioxide hypersensitivity in separation-anxious offspring of parents with panic disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 67:1171–1177.
  • Roberts K, Stanley EM, Franklin ME, Simons RF. 2014. Decreased response monitoring in individuals with symptoms of trichotillomania. Psychophysiology. 51:706–713.
  • Rodriguez CI, Bender J, Jr., Marcus SM, Snape M, Rynn M, Simpson HB. 2010. Minocycline augmentation of pharmacotherapy in obsessive-compulsive disorder: an open-label trial. J Clin Psychiatry. 71:1247–1249.
  • Roelofs K, van Peer J, Berretty E, Jong P, Spinhoven P, Elzinga BM. 2009. Hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis hyperresponsiveness is associated with increased social avoidance behavior in social phobia. Biol Psychiatry. 65:336–343.
  • Roest AM, Martens EJ, de Jonge P, Denollet J. 2010. Anxiety and risk of incident coronary heart disease: a meta-analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 56:38–46.
  • Rohleder N, Joksimovic L, Wolf JM, Kirschbaum C. 2004. Hypocortisolism and increased glucocorticoid sensitivity of pro-Inflammatory cytokine production in Bosnian war refugees with posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 55:745–751.
  • Rosenbaum AH, Schatzberg AF, Jost FA, 3rd, Cross PD, Wells LA, Jiang NS, Maruta T. 1983. Urinary free cortisol levels in anxiety. Psychosomatics. 24:835–837.
  • Rosnick CB, Rawson KS, Butters MA, Lenze EJ. 2013. Association of cortisol with neuropsychological assessment in older adults with generalized anxiety disorder. Aging Ment Health. 17:432–440.
  • Roy-Byrne PP, Cowley DS, Hommer D, Ritchie J, Greenblatt D, Nemeroff C. 1991. Neuroendocrine effects of diazepam in panic and generalized anxiety disorders. Biol Psychiatry. 30:73–80.
  • Roy-Byrne PP, Uhde TW, Post RM, Gallucci W, Chrousos GP, Gold PW. 1986. The corticotropin-releasing hormone stimulation test in patients with panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 143:896–899.
  • Ruland T, Domschke K, Schutte V, Zavorotnyy M, Kugel H, Notzon S, Vennewald N, Ohrmann P, Arolt V, Pfleiderer B, et al. 2015. Neuropeptide S receptor gene variation modulates anterior cingulate cortex Glx levels during CCK-4 induced panic. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 25:1677–1682.
  • Rupprecht R. 2003. Neuroactive steroids: mechanisms of action and neuropsychopharmacological properties. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 28:139–168.
  • Rupprecht R, Rammes G, Eser D, Baghai TC, Schule C, Nothdurfter C, Troxler T, Gentsch C, Kalkman HO, Chaperon F, et al. 2009. Translocator protein (18 kD) as target for anxiolytics without benzodiazepine-like side effects. Science. 325:490–493.
  • Sachinvala N, von Scotti H, McGuire M, Fairbanks L, Bakst K, McGuire M, Fairbanks L, Bakst K, McGuire M, Brown N. 2000. Memory, attention, function, and mood among patients with chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. J Nerv Ment Dis. 188:818–823.
  • Sallee FR, Richman H, Beach K, Sethuraman G, Nesbitt L. 1996. Platelet serotonin transporter in children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder or Tourette's syndrome. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 35:1647–1656.
  • Santesso DL, Segalowitz SJ, Schmidt LA. 2006. Error-related electrocortical responses are enhanced in children with obsessive-compulsive behaviors. Dev Neuropsychol. 29:431–445.
  • Sapolsky RM. 1990. A. E. Bennett Award paper. Adrenocortical function, social rank, and personality among wild baboons. Biol Psychiatry. 28:862–878.
  • Sapolsky RM, Plotsky PM. 1990. Hypercortisolism and its possible neural bases. Biol Psychiatry. 27:937–952.
  • Saria A. 1999. The tachykinin NK1 receptor in the brain: pharmacology and putative functions. Eur J Pharmacol. 375:51–60.
  • Sayyah M, Boostani H, Pakseresht S, Malayeri A. 2011. A preliminary randomized double-blind clinical trial on the efficacy of celecoxib as an adjunct in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatry Res. 189: 403–406.
  • Scaccianoce S, Cigliana G, Nicolai R, Muscolo LA, Porcu A, Navarra D, Perez-Polo JR, Angelucci L. 1993. Hypothalamic involvement in the activation of the pituitary-adrenocortical axis by nerve growth factor. Neuroendocrinology. 58:202–209.
  • Schittecatte M, Garcia-Valentin J, Charles G, Machowski R, Pena-Othaitz MJ, Mendlewicz J, Wilmotte J. 1995. Efficacy of the 'clonidine REM suppression test (CREST)' to separate patients with major depression from controls; a comparison with three currently proposed biological markers of depression. J Affect Disord. 33:151–157.
  • Schleifer SJ, Keller SE, Bartlett JA. 2002. Panic disorder and immunity: few effects on circulating lymphocytes, mitogen response, and NK cell activity. Brain Behav Immun. 16:698–705.
  • Schneider LS, Munjack D, Severson JA, Palmer R. 1987a. Platelet [3H]imipramine binding in generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and agoraphobia with panic attacks. Biol Psychiatry. 22:59–66.
  • Schneider P, Evans L, Ross-Lee L, Wiltshire B, Eadie M, Kenardy J, Hoey H. 1987b. Plasma biogenic amine levels in agoraphobia with panic attacks. Pharmacopsychiatry. 20:102–104.
  • Schruers K, Klaassen T, Pols H, Overbeek T, Deutz NE, Griez E. 2000. Effects of tryptophan depletion on carbon dioxide provoked panic in panic disorder patients. Psychiatry Res. 93:179–187.
  • Schruers K, van Diest R, Overbeek T, Griez E. 2002. Acute L-5-hydroxytryptophan administration inhibits carbon dioxide-induced panic in panic disorder patients. Psychiatry Res. 113:237–243.
  • Schweizer EE, Swenson CM, Winokur A, Rickels K, Maislin G. 1986. The dexamethasone suppression test in generalised anxiety disorder. Br J Psychiatry. 149:320–322.
  • Seddon K, Morris K, Bailey J, Potokar J, Rich A, Wilson S, Bettica P, Nutt DJ. 2011. Effects of 7.5% CO2 challenge in generalized anxiety disorder. J Psychopharmacol (Oxford). 25:43–51.
  • Seldenrijk A, Vogelzangs N, van Hout HP, van Marwijk HW, Diamant M, Penninx BW. 2010. Depressive and anxiety disorders and risk of subclinical atherosclerosis findings from the Netherlands study of depression and anxiety (NESDA). J Psychosom Res. 69:203–210.
  • Shlik J, Maron E, Aluoja A, Vasar V, Toru I. 2002. Citalopram challenge in social anxiety disorder. Euro Neuropsychopharmacol. 12:S339–S340.
  • Shu IW, Onton JA, O'Connell RM, Simmons AN, Matthews SC. 2014. Combat veterans with comorbid PTSD and mild TBI exhibit a greater inhibitory processing ERP from the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex. Psychiatry Res. 224:58–66.
  • Shutov AA, Bystrova OV. 2008. Serum-blood serotonin level as a marker of panic attacks severity and effectiveness of their treatment. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova. 108:49–54.
  • Siegmund A, Koster L, Meves AM, Plag J, Stoy M, Strohle A. 2011. Stress hormones during flooding therapy and their relationship to therapy outcome in patients with panic disorder and agoraphobia. J Psychiatr Res. 45:339–346.
  • Simkin DR, Thatcher RW, Lubar J. 2014. Quantitative EEG and neurofeedback in children and adolescents: anxiety disorders, depressive disorders, comorbid addiction and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and brain injury. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 23:427–464.
  • Singer HS, Loiselle C. 2003. PANDAS: a commentary. J Psychosom Res. 55:31–39.
  • Singh JP, Larson MG, Tsuji H, Evans JC, O'Donnell CJ, Levy D. 1998. Reduced heart rate variability and new-onset hypertension: insights into pathogenesis of hypertension: the Framingham heart study. Hypertension. 32:293–297.
  • Snider LA, Lougee L, Slattery M, Grant P, Swedo SE. 2005. Antibiotic prophylaxis with azithromycin or penicillin for childhood-onset neuropsychiatric disorders. Biol Psychiatry. 57:788–792.
  • Soravia LM, Heinrichs M, Aerni A, Maroni C, Schelling G, Ehlert U, Roozendaal B, de Quervain DJ. 2006. Glucocorticoids reduce phobic fear in humans. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA. 103:5585–5590.
  • Southwick SM, Paige S, Morgan CA, 3rd, Bremner JD, Krystal JH, Charney DS. 1999. Neurotransmitter alterations in PTSD: catecholamines and serotonin. Semin Clin Neuropsychiatry. 4:242–248.
  • Spengler RN, Chensue SW, Giacherio DA, Blenk N, Kunkel SL. 1994. Endogenous norepinephrine regulates tumor necrosis factor-alpha production from macrophages in vitro. J Immunol. 152:3024–3031.
  • Spivak B, Shohat B, Mester R, Avraham S, Gil-Ad I, Bleich A, Valevski A, Weizman A. 1997. Elevated levels of serum interleukin-1 beta in combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 42:345–348.
  • Spivak B, Vered Y, Graff E, Blum I, Mester R, Weizman A. 1999. Low platelet-poor plasma concentrations of serotonin in patients with combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 45:840–845.
  • Staufenbiel SM, Penninx BW, Spijker AT, Elzinga BM, van Rossum EF. 2013. Hair cortisol, stress exposure, and mental health in humans: a systematic review. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 38:1220–1235.
  • Steenen SA, van Wijk AJ, van der Heijden GJ, van Westrhenen R, de Lange J, de Jongh A. 2016. Propranolol for the treatment of anxiety disorders: Systematic review and meta-analysis. J Psychopharmacol (Oxford). 30:128–139.
  • Stein L. 1971. Neurochemistry of reward and punishment: some implications for the etiology of schizophrenia. J Psychiatr Res. 8:345–361.
  • Stein MB, Uhde TW. 1988. Cortisol response to clonidine in panic disorder: comparison with depressed patients and normal controls. Biol Psychiatry. 24:322–330.
  • Stein PK, Bosner MS, Kleiger RE, Conger BM. 1994. Heart rate variability: a measure of cardiac autonomic tone. Am Heart J. 127:1376–1381.
  • Stern ER, Liu Y, Gehring WJ, Lister JJ, Yin G, Zhang J, Fitzgerald KD, Himle JA, Abelson JL, Taylor SF. 2010. Chronic medication does not affect hyperactive error responses in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychophysiology. 47:913–920.
  • Steudte S, Kirschbaum C, Gao W, Alexander N, Schonfeld S, Hoyer J, Stalder T. 2013. Hair cortisol as a biomarker of traumatization in healthy individuals and posttraumatic stress disorder patients. Biol Psychiatry. 74:639–646.
  • Steudte S, Stalder T, Dettenborn L, Klumbies E, Foley P, Beesdo-Baum K, Kirschbaum C. 2011. Decreased hair cortisol concentrations in generalised anxiety disorder. Psychiatry Res. 186:310–314.
  • Strohle A, Feller C, Strasburger CJ, Heinz A, Dimeo F. 2006. Anxiety modulation by the heart? Aerobic exercise and atrial natriuretic peptide. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 31:1127–1130.
  • Strohle A, Jahn H, Montkowski A, Liebsch G, Boll E, Landgraf R, Holsboer F, Wiedemann K. 1997. Central and peripheral administration of atriopeptin is anxiolytic in rats. Neuroendocrinology. 65:210–215.
  • Strohle A, Kellner M, Holsboer F, Wiedemann K. 1998a. Atrial natriuretic hormone decreases endocrine response to a combined dexamethasone-corticotropin-releasing hormone test. Biol Psychiatry. 43:371–375.
  • Strohle A, Kellner M, Holsboer F, Wiedemann K. 1999. Behavioral, neuroendocrine, and cardiovascular response to flumazenil: no evidence for an altered benzodiazepine receptor sensitivity in panic disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 45:321–326.
  • Strohle A, Kellner M, Holsboer F, Wiedemann K. 2001. Anxiolytic activity of atrial natriuretic peptide in patients with panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 158:1514–1516.
  • Strohle A, Kellner M, Yassouridis A, Holsboer F, Wiedemann K. 1998b. Effect of flumazenil in lactate-sensitive patients with panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 155:610–612.
  • Strohle A, Romeo E, di Michele F, Pasini A, Hermann B, Gajewsky G, Holsboer F, Rupprecht R. 2003. Induced panic attacks shift gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptor modulatory neuroactive steroid composition in patients with panic disorder: preliminary results. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 60:161–168.
  • Strohle A, Romeo E, di Michele F, Pasini A, Yassouridis A, Holsboer F, Rupprecht R. 2002. GABA(A) receptor-modulating neuroactive steroid composition in patients with panic disorder before and during paroxetine treatment. Am J Psychiatry. 159:145–147.
  • Strohle A, Stoy M, Graetz B, Scheel M, Wittmann A, Gallinat J, Lang UE, Dimeo F, Hellweg R. 2010. Acute exercise ameliorates reduced brain-derived neurotrophic factor in patients with panic disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 35:364–368.
  • Sullivan GM, Oquendo MA, Huang YY, Mann JJ. 2006. Elevated cerebrospinal fluid 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid levels in women with comorbid depression and panic disorder. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 9:547–556.
  • Sutherland AG, Alexander DA, Hutchison JD. 2003. Disturbance of pro-inflammatory cytokines in post-traumatic psychopathology. Cytokine. 24:219–225.
  • Sutterby SR, Bedwell JS. 2012. Lack of neuropsychological deficits in generalized social phobia. PLoS One. 7:e42675.
  • Swedo SE. 2002. Pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infections (PANDAS). Mol Psychiatry. 7:S24–S25.
  • Swedo SE, Garvey M, Snider L, Hamilton C, Leonard HL. 2001. The PANDAS subgroup: recognition and treatment. CNS Spectr. 6:419–422. 425-6.
  • Swedo SE, Leonard HL, Mittleman BB, Allen AJ, Rapoport JL, Dow SP, Kanter ME, Chapman F, Zabriskie J. 1997. Identification of children with pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infections by a marker associated with rheumatic fever. Am J Psychiatry. 154:110–112.
  • Sztajzel J. 2004. Heart rate variability: a noninvasive electrocardiographic method to measure the autonomic nervous system. Swiss Med Wkly. 134:514–522.
  • Tafet GE, Feder DJ, Abulafia DP, Roffman SS. 2005. Regulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal activity in response to cognitive therapy in patients with generalized anxiety disorder. Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci. 5:37–40.
  • Tafet GE, Idoyaga-Vargas VP, Abulafia DP, Calandria JM, Roffman SS, Chiovetta A, Shinitzky M. 2001. Correlation between cortisol level and serotonin uptake in patients with chronic stress and depression. Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci. 1:388–393.
  • Tamura A, Maruyama Y, Ishitobi Y, Kawano A, Ando T, Ikeda R, Inoue A, Imanaga J, Okamoto S, Kanehisa M, et al. 2013. Salivary alpha-amylase and cortisol responsiveness following electrical stimulation stress in patients with the generalized type of social anxiety disorder. Pharmacopsychiatry. 46:225–260.
  • Tancer ME. 1993. Neurobiology of social phobia. J Clin Psychiatry. 54:26–30.
  • Tancer ME, Mailman RB, Stein MB, Mason GA, Carson SW, Golden RN. 1994a. Neuroendocrine responsivity to monoaminergic system probes in generalized social phobia. Anxiety. 1:216–223.
  • Tancer ME, Stein MB, Black B, Uhde TW. 1993. Blunted growth hormone responses to growth hormone-releasing factor and to clonidine in panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 150:336–337.
  • Tancer ME, Stein MB, Uhde TW. 1994b. Lactic acid response to caffeine in panic disorder: comparison with social phobics and normal controls. Anxiety. 1:138–140.
  • Targum SD. 1992. Cortisol response during different anxiogenic challenges in panic disorder patients. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 17:453–458.
  • Taylor JR, Morshed SA, Parveen S, Mercadante MT, Scahill L, Peterson BS, King RA, Leckman JF, Lombroso PJ. 2002. An animal model of Tourette's syndrome. Am J Psychiatry. 159:657–660.
  • Tempesta D, Mazza M, Serroni N, Moschetta FS, Di Giannantonio M, Ferrara M, De Berardis D. 2013. Neuropsychological functioning in young subjects with generalized anxiety disorder with and without pharmacotherapy. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 45:236–241.
  • Thayer JF, Friedman BH, Borkovec TD. 1996. Autonomic characteristics of generalized anxiety disorder and worry. Biol Psychiatry. 39:255–266.
  • Thoren P, Asberg M, Cronholm B, Jornestedt L, Traskman L. 1980. Clomipramine treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. I. A controlled clinical trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 37:1281–1285.
  • Tiller JW, Biddle N, Maguire KP, Davies BM. 1988. The dexamethasone suppression test and plasma dexamethasone in generalized anxiety disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 23:261–270.
  • Tofani T, Mannelli LD, Zanardelli M, Ghelardini C, Pallanti S. 2015. An immunologic profile study in drug-naive generalized anxiety non depressed patients: a pilot study. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 25:S226.
  • Torcia M, BracciLaudiero L, Lucibello M, Nencioni L, Labardi D, Rubartelli A, Cozzolino F, Aloe L, Garaci E. 1996. Nerve growth factor is an autocrine survival factor for memory B lymphocytes. Cell. 85:345–356.
  • Toru I, Maron E, Raag M, Vasar V, Nutt DJ, Shlik J. 2013. The effect of 6-week treatment with escitalopram on CCK-4 challenge: a placebo-controlled study in CCK-4-sensitive healthy volunteers. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 23:645–652.
  • Tracey KJ. 2002. The inflammatory reflex. Nature. 420:853–859.
  • Tucker P, Adamson P, Miranda R, Jr., Scarborough A, Williams D, Groff J, McLean H. 1997. Paroxetine increases heart rate variability in panic disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 17:370–376.
  • Tucker P, Ruwe WD, Masters B, Parker DE, Hossain A, Trautman RP, Wyatt DB. 2004. Neuroimmune and cortisol changes in selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor and placebo treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 56:121–128.
  • Tukel R, Arslan BA, Ertekin BA, Ertekin E, Oflaz S, Ergen A, Kuruca SE, Isbir T. 2012. Decreased IFN-γ and IL-12 levels in panic disorder. J Psychosom Res. 73:63–67.
  • Twamley EW, Hami S, Stein MB. 2004. Neuropsychological function in college students with and without posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Res. 126:265–274.
  • Uchida RR, Del-Ben CM, Busatto GF, Duran FL, Guimaraes FS, Crippa JA, Araujo D, Santos AC, Graeff FG. 2008. Regional gray matter abnormalities in panic disorder: a voxel-based morphometry study. Psychiatry Res. 163:21–29.
  • Uhde TW, Berrettini WH, Roy-Byrne PP, Boulenger JP, Post RM. 1987. Platelet [3H]imipramine binding in patients with panic disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 22:52–58.
  • Uhde TW, Joffe RT, Jimerson DC, Post RM. 1988. Normal urinary free cortisol and plasma MHPG in panic disorder: clinical and theoretical implications. Biol Psychiatry. 23:575–585.
  • Uhde TW, Tancer ME, Gelernter CS, Vittone BJ. 1994. Normal urinary free cortisol and postdexamethasone cortisol in social phobia: comparison to normal volunteers. J Affect Disord. 30:155–161.
  • Ullsperger M, Danielmeier C, Jocham G. 2014. Neurophysiology of performance monitoring and adaptive behavior. Physiol Rev. 94:35–79.
  • Ursu S, Stenger VA, Shear MK, Jones MR, Carter CS. 2003. Overactive action monitoring in obsessive-compulsive disorder: evidence from functional magnetic resonance imaging. Psychol Sci. 14:347–353.
  • Valenca AM, Nardi AE, Nascimento I, Zin WA, Lopes FL, Mezzasalma MA, Versiani M. 2002. Early carbon dioxide challenge test may predict clinical response in panic disorder. Psychiatry Res. 112:269–272.
  • van den Heuvel OA, Veltman DJ, Groenewegen HJ, Cath DC, van Balkom AJ, van Hartskamp J, Barkhof F, van Dyck R. 2005. Frontal-striatal dysfunction during planning in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 62:301–309.
  • Van den Hout MA, Griez E. 1984. Panic symptoms after inhalation of carbon dioxide. Br J Psychiatry. 144:503–507.
  • van Duinen MA, Schruers KR, Griez EJ. 2010. Desynchrony of fear in phobic exposure. J Psychopharmacol (Oxford). 24:695–699.
  • van Duinen MA, Schruers KR, Jaegers E, Maes M, Griez EJ. 2004. Salivary cortisol in panic: are males more vulnerable? Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 25:386–390.
  • van Duinen MA, Schruers KR, Maes M, Griez EJ. 2007. CO2 challenge induced HPA axis activation in panic. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 10:797–804.
  • van Peer JM, Spinhoven P, Roelofs K. 2010. Psychophysiological evidence for cortisol-induced reduction in early bias for implicit social threat in social phobia. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 35:21–32.
  • van Peer JM, Spinhoven P, van Dijk JG, Roelofs K. 2009. Cortisol-induced enhancement of emotional face processing in social phobia depends on symptom severity and motivational context. Biol Psychol. 81:123–130.
  • van Praag HM, Asnis GM, Kahn RS, Brown SL, Korn M, Friedman JM, Wetzler S. 1990. Monoamines and abnormal behaviour. A multi-aminergic perspective. Br J Psychiatry. 157:723–734.
  • van Veen JF, Van der Wee NJ, Fiselier J, Van Vliet IM, Westenberg HG. 2007. Behavioural effects of rapid intravenous administration of meta-chlorophenylpiperazine (m-CPP) in patients with generalized social anxiety disorder, panic disorder and healthy controls. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 17:637–642.
  • van Veen JF, van Vliet IM, de Rijk RH, van Pelt J, Mertens B, Fekkes D, Zitman FG. 2009. Tryptophan depletion affects the autonomic stress response in generalized social anxiety disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 34:1590–1594.
  • van Veen JF, van Vliet IM, Derijk RH, van Pelt J, Mertens B, Zitman FG. 2008. Elevated alpha-amylase but not cortisol in generalized social anxiety disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 33:1313–1321.
  • van West D, Claes S, Sulon J, Deboutte D. 2008. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal reactivity in prepubertal children with social phobia. J Affect Disord. 111:281–290.
  • Vasterling JJ, Brailey K, Constans JI, Sutker PB. 1998. Attention and memory dysfunction in posttraumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychology. 12:125–133.
  • Veale DM, Sahakian BJ, Owen AM, Marks IM. 1996. Specific cognitive deficits in tests sensitive to frontal lobe dysfunction in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychol Med. 26:1261–1269.
  • Vialou V, Bagot RC, Cahill ME, Ferguson D, Robison AJ, Dietz DM, Fallon B, Mazei-Robison M, Ku SM, Harrigan E, et al. 2014. Prefrontal cortical circuit for depression- and anxiety-related behaviors mediated by cholecystokinin: role of ΔFosB. J Neurosci. 34:3878–3887.
  • Vogelzangs N, Beekman AT, de Jonge P, Penninx BW. 2013. Anxiety disorders and inflammation in a large adult cohort. Transl Psychiatry. 3:e249.
  • Vollmer LL, Strawn JR, Sah R. 2015. Acid-base dysregulation and chemosensory mechanisms in panic disorder: a translational update. Transl Psychiatry. 5:e572.
  • von Kanel R, Hepp U, Kraemer B, Traber R, Keel M, Mica L, Schnyder U. 2007. Evidence for low-grade systemic proinflammatory activity in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. J Psychiatr Res. 41:744–752.
  • Vreeburg SA, Zitman FG, van Pelt J, Derijk RH, Verhagen JC, van Dyck R, Hoogendijk WJ, Smit JH, Penninx BW. 2010. Salivary cortisol levels in persons with and without different anxiety disorders. Psychosom Med. 72:340–347.
  • Wang W, Pizzonia JH, Richerson GB. 1998. Chemosensitivity of rat medullary raphe neurones in primary tissue culture. J Physiol. 511:433–450.
  • Watkins LH, Sahakian BJ, Robertson MM, Veale DM, Rogers RD, Pickard KM, Aitken MR, Robbins TW. 2005. Executive function in Tourette's syndrome and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychol Med. 35:571–582.
  • Wedekind D, Sprute A, Broocks A, Huther G, Engel K, Falkai P, Bandelow B. 2008. Nocturnal urinary cortisol excretion over a randomized controlled trial with paroxetine vs. placebo combined with relaxation training or aerobic exercise in panic disorder. Curr Pharm Des. 14:3518–3524.
  • Weik U, Herforth A, Kolb-Bachofen V, Deinzer R. 2008. Acute stress induces proinflammatory signaling at chronic inflammation sites. Psychosom Med. 70:906–912.
  • Weizman R, Laor N, Barber Y, Hermesh H, Notti I, Djaldetti M, Bessler H. 1996. Cytokine production in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 40:908–912.
  • Weizman R, Laor N, Wiener Z, Wolmer L, Bessler H. 1999. Cytokine production in panic disorder patients. Clin Neuropharmacol. 22:107–109.
  • Wemmie JA. 2011. Neurobiology of panic and pH chemosensation in the brain. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 13:475–483.
  • Wennerblom B, Lurje L, Tygesen H, Vahisalo R, Hjalmarson A. 2000. Patients with uncomplicated coronary artery disease have reduced heart rate variability mainly affecting vagal tone. Heart. 83:290–294.
  • Wiedemann R, Ghofrani HA, Weissmann N, Schermuly R, Quanz K, Grimminger F, Seeger W, Olschewski H. 2001. Atrial natriuretic peptide in severe primary and nonprimary pulmonary hypertension: response to iloprost inhalation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 38:1130–1136.
  • Wiener CD, de Mello Ferreira S, Pedrotti Moreira F, Bittencourt G, de Oliveira JF, Lopez Molina M, Jansen K, de Mattos Souza LD, Rizzato Lara D, Portela LV, et al. 2015. Serum levels of nerve growth factor (NGF) in patients with major depression disorder and suicide risk. J Affect Disord. 184:245–248.
  • Wilkinson DJC, Thompson JM, Lambert GW, Jennings GL, Schwarz RG, Jefferys D, Turner AG, Esler MD. 1998. Sympathetic activity in patients with panic disorder at rest, under laboratory mental stress, and during panic attacks. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 55:511–520.
  • Williams JR, Insel TR, Harbaugh CR, Carter CS. 1994. Oxytocin administered centrally facilitates formation of a partner preference in female prairie voles (Microtus ochrogaster). J Neuroendocrinol. 6:247–250.
  • Wingo AP, Gibson G. 2015. Blood gene expression profiles suggest altered immune function associated with symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder. Brain Behav Immun. 43:184–191.
  • Wise RA, Bozarth MA. 1982. Action of drugs of abuse on brain reward systems: an update with specific attention to opiates. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 17:239–243.
  • Woods SW, Charney DS, Goodman WK, Heninger GR. 1988. Carbon dioxide-induced anxiety. Behavioral, physiologic, and biochemical effects of carbon dioxide in patients with panic disorders and healthy subjects. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 45:43–52.
  • Xiao Z, Wang J, Zhang M, Li H, Tang Y, Wang Y, Fan Q, Fromson JA. 2011. Error-related negativity abnormalities in generalized anxiety disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 35:265–272.
  • Yehuda R. 2005. Neuroendocrine aspects of PTSD. Handb Exp Pharmacol. 169:371–403.
  • Yehuda R, Kahana B, Binder-Brynes K, Southwick SM, Mason JW, Giller EL. 1995. Low urinary cortisol excretion in Holocaust survivors with posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 152:982–986.
  • Yehuda R, McFarlane AC, Shalev AY. 1998. Predicting the development of posttraumatic stress disorder from the acute response to a traumatic event. Biol Psychiatry. 44:1305–1313.
  • Yehuda R, Southwick SM, Nussbaum G, Wahby V, Giller EL, Jr., Mason JW. 1990. Low urinary cortisol excretion in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. J Nerv Ment Dis. 178:366–369.
  • Yeragani VK, Jampala VC, Sobelewski E, Kay J, Igel G. 1999. Effects of paroxetine on heart period variability in patients with panic disorder: a study of holter ECG records. Neuropsychobiology. 40:124–128.
  • Yin HH, Knowlton BJ. 2006. The role of the basal ganglia in habit formation. Nat Rev Neurosci. 7:464–476.
  • Young EA, Abelson JL, Cameron OG. 2004. Effect of comorbid anxiety disorders on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis response to a social stressor in major depression. Biol Psychiatry. 56:113–120.
  • Zabriskie JB. 1986. Rheumatic fever: a model for the pathological consequences of microbial-host mimicry. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 4:65–73.
  • Zak PJ, Kurzban R, Matzner WT. 2005. Oxytocin is associated with human trustworthiness. Horm Behav. 48:522–527.
  • Zambrano-Vazquez L, Allen JJ. 2014. Differential contributions of worry, anxiety, and obsessive compulsive symptoms to ERN amplitudes in response monitoring and reinforcement learning tasks. Neuropsychologia. 61:197–209.
  • Ziemann AE, Allen JE, Dahdaleh NS, Drebot II, Coryell MW, Wunsch AM, Lynch CM, Faraci FM, Howard MA, 3rd, Welsh MJ, et al. 2009. The amygdala is a chemosensor that detects carbon dioxide and acidosis to elicit fear behavior. Cell. 139:1012–1021.
  • Zohar J, Yahalom H, Kozlovsky N, Cwikel-Hamzany S, Matar MA, Kaplan Z, Yehuda R, Cohen H. 2011. High dose hydrocortisone immediately after trauma may alter the trajectory of PTSD: interplay between clinical and animal studies. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 21:796–809.
  • Zwanzger P, Baghai TC, Schuele C, Strohle A, Padberg F, Kathmann N, Schwarz M, Moller HJ, Rupprecht R. 2001. Vigabatrin decreases cholecystokinin-tetrapeptide (CCK-4) induced panic in healthy volunteers. Neuropsychopharmacology. 25:699–703.
  • Zwanzger P, Domschke K, Bradwejn J. 2012. Neuronal network of panic disorder: the role of the neuropeptide cholecystokinin. Depress Anxiety. 29:762–774.
  • Zwanzger P, Eser D, Aicher S, Schule C, Baghai TC, Padberg F, Ella R, Moller HJ, Rupprecht R. 2003. Effects of alprazolam on cholecystokinin-tetrapeptide-induced panic and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal-axis activity: a placebo-controlled study. Neuropsychopharmacology. 28:979–984.
  • Zwanzger P, Eser D, Nothdurfter C, Baghai TC, Moller HJ, Padberg F, Rupprecht R. 2009. Effects of the GABA-reuptake inhibitor tiagabine on panic and anxiety in patients with panic disorder. Pharmacopsychiatry. 42:266–269.
  • Zwanzger P, Rupprecht R. 2005. Selective GABAergic treatment for panic? Investigations in experimental panic induction and panic disorder. J Psychiatry Neurosci. 30:167–175.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.