283
Views
14
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

Water quality decay in distribution systems – problems, causes, and new modeling tools

, &
Pages 69-79 | Published online: 16 Feb 2007

References

References

  • Aiken GR McKnight D Wershaw R MacCarthy P Humic substances in soil, sediment, and water 1985 (New York: Wiley-Interscience)
  • American Water Works Association Water industry data base 1990 (Denver, Colorado)
  • Block , J-C , Haudidier , K , Paquin , J , Miazga , J and Levi , Y . 1993 . Biofilm accumulation in drinking water distribution systems . Biofouling , 6 : 333 – 343 .
  • Bourbigot , MM , Dodin , A and Lheritier , R . 1984 . Bacteria in distribution systems . Water Res , 18 : 585 – 591 .
  • Bouwer , EJ and Crowe , P . 1988 . B., Biological processes in drinking water treatment . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 80 ( 9 ) : 82 – 93 .
  • Buelow , R and Walton , G . 1971 . Bacteriological quality vs. residual chlorine . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 63 : 28 – 35 .
  • Burlingame GA Anselme C Distribution system tastes and odors In Advancements in taste-and-odor treatment and control, edited by I. Suffet, J. Mallevialle and E. Kawczynski 1995 (American Water Works Research Foundation: Denver, Colorado)
  • Buswell , AM . 1938 . Microscopic growths in distribution systems . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 30 : 1651 – 1654 .
  • Capallier , M , Pocoche , D and Deguin , A . 1992 . Evolution of BDOC in distribution networks . Revue des Sciences de L'eau , 5 : 51 – 67 .
  • Carlson , KH and Amy , GL . 1998 . BOM removal during biofiltration . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 90 ( 12 ) : 43 – 52 .
  • Carney , M . 1991 . European drinking water standards . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 83 ( 6 ) : 48 – 55 .
  • Chandy JT Angles ML Significance of limiting nutrients on biofilm formation in drinking water distribution systems Paper presented at Conference on Biofilm Systems, International Water Association, London 1999
  • Chang , HT and Rittmann , B . 1988 . E., Comparative study of biofilm shear loss on different adsorptive media . J. Water Poll. Cont. Fed , 60 : 362 – 368 .
  • Chang , HT , Rittmann , BE , Amar , D , Heim , R , Ehlinger , O and Lesty , Y . 1991 . Biofilm detachment mechanisms in a liquid-fluidized bed . Biotechnol. Bioeng , 38 ( 5 ) : 499 – 506 .
  • Chang , SL . 1961 . Viruses, amoebas, and nematodes and public water supplies . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 53 : 288 – 296 .
  • Chang , SL , Woodward , R and Kabler , P . 1960 . Survey of free-living nematodes and amoebas in municipal supplies . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 52 : 613 – 618 .
  • Chen C-I Griebe T Characklis WG Biocide action of monochloramine on biofilm systems of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Biofouling 1993 7 1 17
  • Cipparone , LA , Diehl , AC and Speitel, Jr , GE . 1997 . Ozonation and BDOC removal: Effect on water quality . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 89 ( 2 ) : 84 – 97 .
  • Clark , RM , Abdesaken , F , Boulos , PF and Maul , R . 1996 . Mixing in distribution system storage tanks: Its effect on water quality . J. Environ. Eng , 122 ( 9 ) : 814 – 821 .
  • Clark , RM , Grayman , WM , Goodrich , J , Deininger , RA and Hess , A . 1991 . Field-testing distribution water quality models . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 83 ( 7 ) : 67 – 75 .
  • Clark , RM , Grayman , WM , Males , RM and Hess , A . 1993 . Modeling contaminant propagation in drinking-water distribution systems . J. Environ. Eng , 119 ( 2 ) : 349 – 364 .
  • Cunliffe , DA . 1991 . Bacterial nitrification in chloraminated water supplies . Appl. Environ. Microbiol , 57 : 3399 – 3402 .
  • DeBeer , DA , Srinivasan , R and Stewart , PS . 1994 . Direct measurement of chlorine penetration into biofilms during disinfection . Appl. Environ. Microbiol , 60 : 4339 – 4344 .
  • Donlan , RM and Pipes , WO . 1988 . Selected drinking water characteristics and attached microbial populations density . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 80 ( 11 ) : 70 – 76 .
  • Douglas , BO , Merrill , DT and Catlin , JO . 1996 . Water quality deterioration from corrosion of cement-mortar linings . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 88 ( 7 ) : 99 – 107 .
  • Dukan , S , Levi , Y , Piriou , P , Guyon , F and Villon , P . 1996 . Dynamic modeling of bacterial growth in drinking water networks . Water Res , 30 : 1991 – 2002 .
  • Elmaalouf S Kim Y Field examination of a distribution system water quality model Paper presented at the Hydraulic Engineering Conference, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, Virginia 1993
  • Emde , KM , Smith , DW and Facey , R . 1992 . Initial investigation of microbially influenced corrosion (mic) in a low temperature water distribution system . Water Res , 26 : 169 – 175 .
  • Fransolet , G , Villers , G and Masschelein , WJ . 1985 . Influence of temperature on bacterial development in waters . Ozone Sci , 7 ( 3 ) : 205 – 227 .
  • Frateur , I , Deslouis , C , Kiene , L , Levi , Y and Tribollet , B . 1999 . Free chlorine consumption induced by cast iron corrosion in drinking water distribution systems . Water Res , 33 : 1781 – 1790 .
  • Gauthiert , V , Holt , D , Merlet , N and Block , J-C . 1998 . Importance of disinfectant demand of materials for maintaining residuals in drinking water distribution systems . Water Supply , 16 ( 3/4 ) : 181 – 191 .
  • Geldreich EE Microbial quality of water supply in distribution systems 1996 (New York: Lewis Publishers)
  • Gibbs , RA , Scutt , JE and Croll , BT . 1993 . Assimilable organic carbon concentrations and bacterial numbers in a water distribution system . Water Sci. Technol , 27 ( 3/4 ) : 159 – 166 .
  • Goshko , MA , Minnigh , HA , Pipes , WO and Christian , R . 1983a . R., Relationships between standard plate counts and other parameters in water distribution systems . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 75 : 568 – 571 .
  • Goshko , MA , Pipes , WO and Christian , R . 1983b . R., Coliform occurrence and chlorine residual in small water distribution systems . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 75 : 371 – 374 .
  • Grayman , WM and Clark , R . 1993 . M., Using computer models to determine the effect of storage on water quality . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 85 ( 7 ) : 67 – 77 .
  • Grayman , WM , Clark , RM and Males , RM . 1988 . Modeling distribution-system water quality: Dynamic approach . J. Water Resources Planning and Management , 114 ( 3 ) : 295 – 311 .
  • Grayman , WM , Deininger , RA , Green , A , Boulos , PF , Bowcock , RW and Godwin , CC . 1996 . Water quality and mixing models for tanks and reservoirs . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 88 ( 7 ) : 60 – 73 .
  • Haas , CN and Karra , SB . 1984a . Kinetics of microbial inactivation by chlorine – I: Review of results in demand-free systems . Water Res , 11 : 1443 – 1449 .
  • Haas , CN and Karra , SB . 1984b . Kinetics of microbial inactivation by chlorine – II: Kinetics in the presence of chlorine demand . Water Res , 11 : 1451 – 1454 .
  • Haas , CN , Meyer , MA and Paller , MS . 1983 . Microbial alterations in water distribution systems and their relationship to physical-chemical characteristics . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 75 : 475 – 478 .
  • Hack , DJ . 1985 . State regulation of chloramine . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 77 ( 1 ) : 46 – 49 .
  • Hall , EL and Dietrich , AM . 2000 . A brief history of drinking water . Opflow , 26 ( 6 ) : 46 – 51 .
  • Harvill , CR , Morgan , JH , Hagar , MC and Todd , AR . 1942 . Maintenance of chlorine residual in the distribution system . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 34 : 1797 – 1806 .
  • Héraud , J , Kiéné , L , Detay , M and Levi , Y . 1997 . Optimized modeling of chlorine residual in a drinking water distribution system with a combination of on-line sensors . J Water SRT – Aqua , 46 ( 2 ) : 59 – 70 .
  • Herson , DA , Marshall , DR , Baker , KH and Victoreen , HT . 1991 . Association of microorganisms with surfaces in distribution systems . J. of Am. Water Works Assoc , 83 ( 7 ) : 103 – 106 .
  • Hobie , JE , Daley , RH and Jasper , S . 1977 . Use of nuclepore filters for counting bacteria by fluorescence microscopy . Appl. Environ. Microbiol , 33 : 1225 – 1228 .
  • Howard , MJ . 1940 . Bacterial depreciation of water quality in distribution systems . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 32 : 1501 – 1506 .
  • Jadas-Hecart , A , Morer , A , Stitou , M , Bouillot , P and Legube , B . 1992 . The chlorine demand of a treated water . Water Res , 8 : 1073 – 1084 .
  • Jafvert , CT and Valentine , R . 1992 . L., Reaction scheme for the chlorination of ammoniacal water . Environ. Sci. Technol , 26 : 577 – 586 .
  • Jegatheesan , V , Kastl , G , Fisher , I , Chandy , J and Angles , M . 2004 . Modeling bacterial growth in drinking water . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 96 ( 5 ) : 129 – 141 .
  • Kennedy , MS , Moegling , S , Sarikelle , S and Suravallop , K . 1993 . Assessing the effects of storage tank design on water quality . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 85 ( 7 ) : 78 – 88 .
  • Kepner, Jr , RL and Pratt , JR . 1994 . Use of fluorochromes for direct enumeration of total bacteria in environmental samples: Past and present . Microbiol. Rev , 58 ( 4 ) : 603 – 615 .
  • Kiene , L , Lu , W and Levi , Y . 1998 . Relative importance of the phenomena responsible for chlorine decay in drinking water distribution systems . Water Sci. Technol , 38 ( 6 ) : 219 – 227 .
  • Larson , TE . 1966 . Deterioration of water quality in distribution systems . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 58 : 1307 – 1316 .
  • Laurent , P , Servais , P , Prevost , M , Gatel , D and Clement , B . 1997 . Testing the SANCHO model on distribution systems . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 89 ( 7 ) : 92 – 103 .
  • Laurent , P , Servais , P , Gatel , D , Randon , G , Bonne , P and Cavard , J . 1999 . Microbiological quality before and after nanofiltration . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 91 ( 10 ) : 62 – 72 .
  • LeChevallier , MW . 1990 . Coliform regrowth in drinking water: A review . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 82 ( 11 ) : 74 – 86 .
  • LeChevallier , MW , Babcock , T and Lee , RG . 1987 . Examination and characterization of distribution system biofilms . Appl. Environ. Microbiol , 53 : 2714 – 2724 .
  • LeChevallier , MW , Cawthon , CD and Lee , RG . 1988a . Factors promoting survival of bacteria in chlorinated water supplies . Appl. Environ. Microbiol , 54 : 649 – 654 .
  • LeChevallier , MW , Cawthon , CD and Lee , RG . 1988b . Inactivation of biofilm bacteria . Appl. Environ. Microbiol , 54 : 2492 – 2499 .
  • LeChevallier , MW , Lowry , CO and Lee , RG . 1990 . Disinfecting biofilms in a model distribution system . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 82 ( 3 ) : 87 – 99 .
  • LeChevallier , MW , Lowry , CO , Lee , RG and Gibbon , DL . 1993 . Examining the relationship between iron corrosion and the disinfection of biofilm bacteria . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 85 ( 7 ) : 111 – 123 .
  • LeChevallier , MW , Schulz , W and Lee , RG . 1991 . Bacterial nutrients in drinking water . Appl. Environ. Microbiol , 57 : 857 – 862 .
  • LeChevallier MW Shaw N Factors limiting microbial growth in distribution systems: Full-scale experiments 1996 (Denver, Colorado: American Water Works Research Foundation)
  • LeChevallier , MW , Welch , NJ and Smith , DB . 1996 . Full-scale studies of factors related to coliform regrowth in drinking water . Appl. Environ. Microbiol , 62 : 2201 – 2211 .
  • Lee , SH , O'Connor , JT and Banerji , SK . 1980 . Biologically mediated corrosion and its effects on water quality in distribution systems . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 72 ( 11 ) : 636 – 645 .
  • Levy RV Invertebrates and associated bacteria in drinking water distribution lines In Drinking water microbiology, edited by G. McFeters pp. 224 – 238 1990 (New York: Springer Verlag)
  • Levy , RV , Hart , F and Cheetham , R . 1986 . Occurrence and public health significance of invertebrates in drinking water systems . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 78 ( 9 ) : 105 – 110 .
  • Lieu , NI , Wolfe , RL and Means, III , EG . 1993 . Optimizing chloramine disinfection for the control of nitrification . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 85 ( 2 ) : 84 – 90 .
  • Little , B , Wagner , P , Hart , K , Ray , R , Lavoie , D , Nealson , K and Aguilar , C . 1998 . The role of biomineralization in microbiologically influenced corrosion . Biodegradation , 9 : 1 – 10 .
  • Lowther ED Moser RH Detecting and eliminating coliform regrowth Paper presented at the Water Quality Technology Conference, American Water Works Association, Denver, Colorado 1984
  • Mackenthun , KM and Keup , LE . 1970 . Biological problems encountered in water supplies . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 62 : 520 – 526 .
  • Mallevialle J Sources of tastes and odors in drinking water In Identification and treatment of tastes and odors in drinking water, edited by I. Suffett and J. Mallevialle pp. 32 – 74 1987 (American Water Works Association: Denver, Colorado)
  • Martin , RS , Gates , WH , Tobin , RS , Sumarah , R , Wolfe , P and Forestall , P . 1982 . Factors affecting coliform bacterial growth in distribution systems . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 74 : 34 – 37 .
  • Mathieu , L , Block , J-C , Prevost , M , Maul , A and DeBischops , R . 1995 . Biological stability of drinking-water in the city of Metz distribution system . Aqua – J. Water Serv. Res. Technol , 44 ( 5 ) : 230 – 239 .
  • Maul , A , El-Shaarawi , AH and Block , J-C . 1985 . Heterotrophic bacteria in water distribution systems, part 1: Spatial and temporal variation . Science of the Total Environ , 44 : 201 – 214 .
  • Meader J Hart F CLNET – A computer model for tracking movement, decay, and concentrations throughout water distribution systems Paper presented at the Water Resources Conference, American Society of Civil Engineers, Renton, Virginia 1988
  • Miettinen , IT , Vartiainen , T , Nissinen , T , Tuhkanen , T and Martikainen , PT . 1998 . Microbial growth in drinking waters treated with ozone, ozone/hydrogen peroxide or chlorine . Ozone Sci , 20 : 303 – 305 .
  • Nagy LA An experimental analysis of the microbial dynamics of a drinking water distribution system Ph.D. Dissertation, University of California, Irvine 1984
  • Neden , DG , Jones , RJ , Smith , JR , Kirmeyer , GJ and Foust , GW . 1992 . Comparing chlorination and chloramination for controlling bacterial regrowth . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 84 ( 7 ) : 80 – 88 .
  • Norton , CD and LeChevallier , MW . 1998 . Chloramination: Its effect on distribution system water quality . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 89 ( 7 ) : 66 – 43 .
  • Odell , LH , Kirmeyer , GJ , Wilczak , A , Jacangelo , JG , Marcinko , JP and Wolfe , RL . 1996 . Controlling nitrification in chlorinated systems . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 88 ( 7 ) : 86 – 96 .
  • Olsen BH Assessment and implications of bacterial regrowth in water distribution systems 1982 (US Environmental Protection Agency: Cincinnati, Ohio), (Report no. 6001/52-82-072)
  • Opheim D Grochowski JG Smith D Isolation of coliforms from water main tubercles Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C 1988
  • Painter HA Nitrification in the treatment of sewage and waste-waters In Nitrification, edited by J.I. Prosser pp. 185 – 208 1986 (IRL Press: Oxford)
  • Payment , P , Franco , E and Siemiatycki , J . 1993 . Absence of relationship between health effects due to tap water consumption and drinking water quality parameters . Water Sci. Technol , 27 ( 3/4 ) : 137 – 143 .
  • Payment , P , Richardson , L , Siemiatycki , J , Dewar , R , Edwardes , M and Franco , E . 1991 . A randomized trial to evaluate the risk of gastrointestinal disease due to consumption of drinking water meeting current microbiological standards . Am. J. Public Health , 81 ( 6 ) : 703 – 708 .
  • Payment , P , Siemiatycki , J , Richardson , L , Renaud , G , Franco , E and Prevost , M . 1997 . A prospective epidemiological study of gastrointestinal health effects due to the consumption of drinking water . International J. Environ. Health Res , 7 : 5 – 31 .
  • Piriou , P , Dukan , S and Kiene , L . 1998 . Modeling bacteriological water quality in drinking water distribution systems . Wat. Sci. Technol , 38 ( 8 – 9 ) : 299 – 307 .
  • Piriou , P , Dukan , S , Levi , Y and Jarrige , PA . 1997 . Prevention of bacterial growth in drinking water distribution systems . Water Sci. Technol , 35 ( 11/12 ) : 283 – 287 .
  • Piriou , P , Kiene , L and Dukan , S . 1998 . PICCOBIO: A solution to manage and improve bacterial water quality in drinking water distribution systems . Water Supply , 16 ( 3 – 4 ) : 95 – 104 .
  • Piriou , P , Malleret , L , Bruchet , A and Kiéné , L . 2001 . Trichloranisole kinetics and musty taste in drinking water distribution systems . Wat. Sci. Technol.: Water Supply , 1 : 11 – 18 .
  • Pontius , F . 2000 . W., Regulations in 2000 and beyond . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 92 ( 3 ) : 40 – 54 .
  • Powell , S . 1921 . T., The quality of water at different points on a water system . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 8 : 522 – 529 .
  • Prevost , M , Rompre , A , Coallier , J , Servais , P , Laurent , P , Clement , B and LaFrance , P . 1998 . Suspended bacterial biomass and activity in full-scale drinking water distribution systems: Impact of water treatment . Water Res , 32 : 1393 – 1406 .
  • Qualls , RG and Johnson , J . 1983 . D., Kinetics of the short-term consumption chlorine by fulvic acid . Environ. Sci. Technol , 17 ( 11 ) : 692 – 698 .
  • Reasoner , DJ and Geldreich , E . 1985 . E., A new medium for enumeration and subculture of bacteria from potable water . Appl. Environ. Microbiol , 49 : 1 – 7 .
  • Reilly , KJ and Kippin , JS . 1983 . Relationship of bacterial counts with turbidity and free chlorine in two distribution systems . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 75 ( 6 ) : 309 – 312 .
  • Rice , EW , Scarpino , PV , Reasoner , DJ , Logsdon , GS and Wild , D . 1991 . Correlation of coliform growth response with other water quality parameters . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 83 ( 7 ) : 98 – 102 .
  • Ridgeway , HF and Olson , B . 1981 . H., Scanning electron microscope evidence of bacterial colonization of a drinking-water distribution system . Appl. Environ. Microbiol , 41 : 274 – 287 .
  • Ridgeway , HF and Olson , B . 1982 . H., Chlorine resistance patterns of bacteria from two drinking water distribution systems . Appl. Environ. Microbiol , 44 : 972 – 987 .
  • Rittmann , BE . 1982 . The effect of shear stress on biofilm loss rate . Biotechnol. Bioeng , 24 : 501 – 506 .
  • Rittmann , BE and Huck , PM . 1989 . Biological treatment of public water supplies . CRC Critical Reviews in Environmental Control , 19 ( 2 ) : 119 – 184 .
  • Rittmann BE McCarty PL Environmental Biotechnology: Principles and Applications 2001 (McGraw-Hill: New York)
  • Rittmann , BE and Snoeyink , VL . 1984 . Achieving biologically stable drinking water . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 76 ( 10 ) : 106 – 114 .
  • Rossman , LA , Clark , RM and Grayman , WM . 1994 . Modeling chlorine residuals in drinking-water distribution systems . J. Environ. Eng , 120 : 803 – 819 .
  • Schellart , JA . 1986 . Disinfection and bacterial regrowth: some experiences of the Amsterdam water works before and after stopping the safety chlorination . Water Supply , 4 : 217 – 225 .
  • Schoenen D Microbial growth due to materials used in drinking water systems In Biotechnology, edited by H.J. Rehm and G. Reed 1986 (VCH Verlagsgesellchaft: Weinheim, Germany)
  • Servais P Personal communication to the author 2001
  • Servais , P , Billen , G , Laurent , P , Levi , Y and Randon , G . 1992 . Studies of BDOC and bacterial dynamics in the drinking water distribution system of the Northern Parisian suburbs . Revue des Sciences de L'eau , 5 : 69 – 89 .
  • Servais , P , Laurent , P , Billen and Gatel , D . 1995 . Development of a model of BDOC and bacterial biomass fluctuations in distribution systems . Revue des Sciences de L'eau , 8 : 427 – 462 .
  • Servais , P , Laurent , P and Randon , G . 1995 . Comparison of the bacterial dynamics in various French distribution systems . Aqua – J. Water Serv. Res. Technol , 44 ( 1 ) : 10 – 17 .
  • Shannon , AM and Wallace , WM . 1941 . Investigation of water quality in a distribution system . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 82 ( 7 ) : 87 – 99 .
  • Shukairy , HM and Summers , RS . 1992 . The impact of preozonation and biodegradation on disinfection by-product formation . Water Res , 26 : 1217 – 1227 .
  • Suffet IH Ho J Chou D Khiari D Mallevialle J Taste-and-odor problems observed during drinking water treatment In Advancements in taste-and-odor treatment and control, edited by I. H. Suffet, J. Mallevialle and E. Kawczynski 1995 (Denver, Colorado: American Water Works Research Foundation)
  • Tuovinen , OH , Button , KS , Vuorinen , A , Carlson , L , Mair , DM and Yut , LA . 1980 . Bacterial, chemical, and mineralogical characteristics of tubercles in distribution pipelines . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 72 ( 11 ) : 626 – 635 .
  • Tuovinen , OH and Hsu , JC . 1982 . Aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms in tubercles of the Columbus, Ohio, water distribution system . Appl. Environ. Microbiol , 44 : 761 – 764 .
  • van der Kooij D Veenendaal H Assessment of the biofilm formation characteristics of drinking water Paper presented at the Water Quality Technology Conference 1992 (American Water Works Association, Denver, Colorado)
  • van der Kooij , D , Hein , J , van Lieverloo , M , Schellart , J and Hiemstra , P . 1999 . Maintaining quality without a disinfectant residual . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 91 ( 1 ) : 55 – 64 .
  • van der Kooij , D , Visser , A and Hijnen , W . 1982 . Determining the concentration of easily assimilable organic carbon in drinking water . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 74 ( 10 ) : 540 – 544 .
  • Vasconcelos , JJ , Rossman , LA , Grayman , WM , Boulos , PF and Clark , R . 1997 . M., Kinetics of chlorine decay . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 89 ( 7 ) : 54 – 65 .
  • Victoreen , HT . 1969 . Soil bacteria and color problem in distribution systems . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 61 : 429 – 431 .
  • Videla HA Metal dissolution/redox in biofilms Structure and function of biofilms, edited by W. G. Characklis and P. A. Wilderer pp. 301 – 320 1989 (New York: John Wiley)
  • Volk , CJ and LeChevallier , MW . 1999 . Impacts of the reduction of nutrient levels on bacterial water quality in distribution systems . Appl. Environ Microbiol , 65 ( 11 ) : 4957 – 4966 .
  • Volk , C and Joret , J . 1994 . Parameters predictifs de l'apparation des coliformes dan les reseaux de distribution d'eau d'alimentation . Revue des Sciences de L'eau , 6 : 311 – 314 .
  • Wajon , JE , Kavanagh , B , Kagi , R , Rosich , R and Alexander , R . 1988 . Controlling swampy odors in drinking water . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 80 ( 6 ) : 77 – 83 .
  • Wilczak , A , Jacangelo , JG , Marcinko , JP , Odell , LH , Kirmeyer , GJ and Wolfe , R . 1996 . L., Occurrence of nitrification in chloraminated distribution systems . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 88 ( 7 ) : 74 – 85 .
  • Wolfe , RL , Lieu , NI , Izaguirre , G and Means, III , EG . 1990 . Ammonia-oxidizing bacteria in a chloraminated distribution system: Seasonal occurrence, distribution, and disinfection resistance . Appl. Environ. Microbiol , 56 : 451 – 462 .
  • Wolfe , RL , Means, III , EG , Davis , MK and Barrett , SE . 1988 . Biological nitrification in covered reservoirs containing chloraminated water . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 80 ( 9 ) : 109 – 114 .
  • Wood PM Nitrification as a bacterial energy source In Nitrification, edited by J. I. Prosser pp. 39 – 62 1986 (Oxford: IRL Press)
  • Woolschlager JE A comprehensive disinfection and water quality model for drinking water distribution systems Ph.D. Dissertation, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, USA 2000
  • Woolschlager JE Rittmann BE Piriou P Kiene L Schwartz B Comprehensive distribution system water quality analysis focusing on chloramine chemistry and nitrification reactions Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Water Works Association, Denver, Colorado 1999
  • Woolschlager JE Rittmann BE Piriou P Schwartz B Developing an Effective Strategy to Control Nitrifier Growth Using the Comprehensive Disinfection and Water Quality Model Proceedings of the World Water and Environmental Resources Congress, American Society of Civil Engineers, Renton, Virginia 2001
  • Zhang , GR , Kiéné , L , Wable , O , Chan , US and Duguet , JP . 1992 . Modeling of chlorine residual in the water distribution network of Macao . Environmental Technol , 13 : 937 – 946 .

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.