Well-trained, trained and recreationally trained runners’ cognition during a 5km tempo run: a think aloud study

References

• Aitchison, C., Turner, L. A., Ansley, L., Thompson, K. G., Micklewright, D., & Gibson, A. S. C. (2013). Inner dialogue and its relationship to perceived exertion during different running intensities. Perceptions of Motor Skills, 117(1), 11–30. https://doi.org/10.2466/06.30.PMS.117x11z3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baker, J., Cote, J., & Deakin, J. (2005). Cognitive characteristics of expert, middle of the pack, and back of the pack ultra-endurance triathletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 6(5), 551–558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2004.04.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barwood, M. J., Corbett, J., Wagstaff, C. R. D., McVeigh, D., & Thelwell, R. C. (2015). Improvement of 10-km time-trial cycling with motivational self-talk compared with neutral self-talk. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 10(2), 166–171. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2014-0059
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Basset, F. A., Kelly, L. P., Hohl, R., & Kaushal, N. (2022). Type of self-talk matters: Its effects on perceived exertion, cardiorespiratory, and cortisol responses during an iso-metabolic endurance exercise. Psychophysiology, 59(3), e13980. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.13980
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Billat, V. L., Wesfreid, E., Kapfer, C., Koralsztein, J. P., & Meyer, Y. (2006). Non-Linear dynamics of heart rate and oxygen uptake in exhaustive 10,000 m runs: Influence of constant vs. freely pace. The Journal of Physiological Sciences, 56(1), 103–111. https://doi.org/10.2170/physiolsci.R2028
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blanchfield, A. W., Hardy, J., deMorree, H. M., Staino, W., & Marcora, S. M. (2014). Talking yourself out of exhaustion: The effects of self-talk on endurance performance. Medicine & Science in Sport & Exercise, 46(5), 998–1007. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000000184
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borg, G. (1998). Borg's perceived exertion and pain scales. Human Kinetics.
   Google Scholar
• Bourke, M., Hilland, T. A., & Craike, M. (2021). Variance in the valenced response during moderate-to-vigorous physical activity: A review of cognitive and contextual mechanisms. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 14(1), 154–185. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2020.1780626
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brick, N., MacIntyre, T., & Campbell, M. (2014). Attentional focus in endurance activity: New paradigms and future directions. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 7(1), 106–134. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2014.885554
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brick, N., MacIntyre, T., & Campbell, M. (2015). Metacognitive processes in the self-regulation of performance in elite endurance runners. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 19, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2015.02.003
   Google Scholar
• Brick, N. E., Campbell, M. J., Metcalfe, R. S., Mair, J. L., & MacIntyre, T. E. (2016). Altering pace control and pace regulation: Attentional focus effects during running. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 48(5), 879–886. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000000843
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brick, N. E., Campbell, M. J., Sheehan, R. B., Fitzpatrick, B. L., & MacIntyre, T. E. (2020). Metacognitive processes and attentional focus in recreational endurance runners. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 18(3), 362–379. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2018.1519841
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Casado, A., Hanley, B., & Ruiz-Pérez, L. M. (2020). Deliberate practice in training differentiates the best Kenyan and Spanish long-distance runners. European Journal of Sport Science, 20(7), 887–895. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2019.1694077
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Casado, A., Hanley, B., Santos-Concejero, J., & Ruiz-Pérez, L. M. (2021). World-class long-distance running performances are best predicted by volume of easy runs and deliberate practice of short-interval and tempo runs. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 35(9), 2525–2531. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000003176
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Casado, A., & Ruiz-Pérez, L. M. (2017). The Kenyan and Spanish runners of long distance and its deliberate practice. Journal of Sports Psychology, 26(2), 55–61. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2019.1694077
   Google Scholar
• Crutcher, R. J. (1994). Telling what we know: The use of verbal report methodologies in psychological research. Psychological Science, 5(5), 241–244. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1994.tb00619.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Pauw, K., Roelands, B., De Geus, B., & Meeusen, R. (2013). Guidelines to classify subject groups in sports-science research. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 8(2), 111–122. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.8.2.111
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ekkekakis, P. (2005). The study of affective responses to acute exercise: The dual-mode model. In R. Stelter & K. K. Roessler (Eds.), New approaches to sport and exercise psychology (pp. 119–146). Oxford, United Kingdom: Meyer and Meyer Sport.
   Google Scholar
• Ekkekakis, P. (2009). The dual-mode theory of affective responses to exercise in metatheoretical context: II. Bodiless heads, ethereal cognitive schemata, and other improbable dualistic creatures, exercising. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 2(2), 139–160. https://doi.org/10.1080/17509840902829323
   Google Scholar
• Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A. (1980). Verbal reports as data. Psychological Review, 87(3), 215–251. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.87.3.215
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A. (1993). Verbal reports as data. MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A.-G., & Buchner, A. (2007). G*power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39(2), 175–191. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193146
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• García, S., Razon, S., Hristovski, R., Balagué, N., & Tenenbaum, G. (2015). Dynamic stability of task-related thoughts in trained runners. The Sport Psychologist, 29(4), 302–309. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.2014-0094
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill, A., Schücker, L., Hagemann, N., & Strauß, B. (2017). Further evidence for an external focus of attention in running: Looking at specific focus instructions and individual differences. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 39(5), 352–365. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.2016-0272
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hulteen, R. M., Smith, J. J., Morgan, P. J., Barnett, L. M., Hallal, P. C., Colyvas, K., & Lubans, D. R. (2017). Global participation in sport and leisure-time physical activities: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Preventive Medicine, 95, 14–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2016.11.027
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• IBM Corp. (2017). IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 25.0. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp.
   Google Scholar
• Jackman, P. C., Allen-Collinson, J., Ronkainen, N., & Brick, N. (2022). Feeling good, sensory engagements, and time out: Embodied pleasures of running. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676X.2022.2150674
   Google Scholar
• Jackman, P. C., Hawkins, R. M., Whitehead, A. E., & Brick, N. E. (2021). Integrating models of self-regulation and optimal experiences: A qualitative study into flow and clutch states in recreational distance running. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 57, 102051. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2021.102051
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, L. J., Cronin, L., Huntley, E., & Marchant, D. (2020). A test of self-determination theory with the RunSmart beginners running programme. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 20(1), 102–121. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2020.1819368
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keating, L. E., Becker, S., McCabe, K., Whattam, J., Garrick, L., Sassi, R. B., Frey, B. N., & McKinnon, M. C. (2020). Effects of a 12-week running programme in youth and adults with complex mood disorders. BMJ Open Sport & Exercise Medicine, 4(1), e000314. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjsem-2017-000314
   Google Scholar
• Lind, E., Welch, A. S., & Ekkekakis, P. (2009). Do ‘mind over muscle’ strategies work? Examining the effects of attentional association and dissociation on exertional, affective and physiological responses to exercise. Sports Medicine, 39(9), 743–764. https://doi.org/10.2165/11315120-000000000-00000
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marcora, S. M. (2008). Do we really need a central governor to explain brain regulation of exercise performance? European Journal of Applied Physiology, 104(5), 929–931. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-008-0818-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Massey, H. S., Whitehead, A. E., Marchant, D., Polmand, R. C., & Williams, E. L. (2020). An investigation of expertise in cycling: Eye tracking, think aloud and the influence of a competitor. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 49, 101681. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2020.101681
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masters, K. S., & Ogles, B. M. (1998). Associative and dissociative cognitive strategies in exercise and running: 20 years later, what do we know? Sport Psychologist, 12(3), 253–270. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.12.3.253
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCormick, A., Meijen, C., & Marcora, S. (2018). Psychological demands experienced by recreational endurance athletes. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 16(4), 415–430. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2016.1256341
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morgan, W. P., & Pollack, M. L.. (1977). Annals of the New York academy of sciences, 301, 382–403. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1977.tb38215.x.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nedergaard, J., Christensen, M., & Wallentin, M. (2021). Valence, form, and content of self-talk predict sport type and level of performance. Consciousness and Cognition, 89, 103102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2021.103102
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nietfeld, J. L. (2003). An examination of metacognitive strategy Use and monitoring skills by competitive middle distance runners. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 15(4), 307–320. https://doi.org/10.1080/714044199
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pedisic, Z., Shrestha, N., Kovalchik, S., Stamatakis, E., Liangruenrom, N., Grgic, J., Titze, S., Biddle, S. J. H., & Bauman, A. E. (2020). Is running associated with a lower risk of all-cause, cardiovascular and cancer mortality, and is the more the better? A systematic review and meta-analysis. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 54(13), 817–818. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2019-101793
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samson, A., Simpson, D., Kamphoff, C., & Langlier, A. (2017). Think aloud: An examination of distance runners’ thought processes. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 15(2), 176–189. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2015.1069877
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schücker, L., Knopf, C., Strauss, B., & Hagemann, N. (2014). An internal focus of attention is not always as bad as its reputation: How specific aspects of internally focused attention do not hinder running efficiency. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 36(3), 223–243. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.2013-0200
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sport England. (2022). Active Lives adult survey: November 20/21 report. https://www.sportengland.org/know-your-audience/data/active-lives
   Google Scholar
• Swann, C., Jackman, P. C., Schweickle, M. J., & Vella, S. A. (2019). Optimal experiences in exercise: A qualitative investigation of flow and clutch states. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 40, 87–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.09.007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tenenbaum, G., & Connolly, C. T. (2008). Attention allocation under varied workload and effort perception in rowers. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 9(5), 704–717. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2007.09.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Biesen, D., Hettinga, F. J., McCulloch, K., & Vanlandewijck, Y. (2016). Pacing profiles in competitive track races: Regulation of exercise intensity is related to cognitive ability. Frontiers in Physiology, 7(624), https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2016.00624
   Google Scholar
• Whitehead, A. E., Jones, H. S., Williams, E. L., Dowling, C., Morley, D., Taylor, J. A., & Polman, R. C. (2019). Changes in cognition over a 16.1 km cycling time trial using think aloud protocol: Preliminary evidence. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 17(3), 266–274. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2017.1292302
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitehead, A. E., Jones, H. S., Williams, E. L., Rowley, C., Quayle, L., Marchant, D., & Polman, R. C. (2018). Investigating the relationship between cognitions, pacing strategies and performance in 16.1 km cycling time trials using a think aloud protocol. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 34, 95–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2017.10.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson, T. D. (1994). The proper protocol: Validity and completeness of verbal reports. Psychological Science, 5(5), 249–252. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1994.tb00621.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar