Are mega-events a solution to address physical inactivity? Interrogating the London 2012 Paralympic sport participation legacies among people with disabilities

References

• Active People Interactive. (2017). Analyse the data. http://activepeople.sportengland.org
   Google Scholar
• Activity Alliance. (2020). Annual disability and activity survey 2019/2020. http://www.activityalliance.org.uk/how-we-help/research/5563-activity-alliance-annual-disability-and-activity-survey
   Google Scholar
• Activity Alliance. (n.d). Inclusive fitness initiative. http://www.activityalliance.org.uk/how-we-help/programmes/65-inclusive-fitness-initiative
   Google Scholar
• Astbury, B. (2013). Some reflections on Pawson’s science of evaluation: A realist manifesto. Evaluation, 19(4), 383–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356389013505039
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Astbury, B., & Leeuw, F. L. (2010). Unpacking black boxes: Mechanisms and theory building in evaluation. American Journal of Evaluation, 31(3), 363–381. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098214010371972
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BBC Sport. (2013). Olympic legacy: Sarah storey says Paralympics changed attitudes. http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/disability-sport/23450746
   Google Scholar
• Berger, R. J. (2008). Disability and the Dedicated Wheelchair Athlete. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 37(6), 647–678. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891241607309892
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blaikie, N. (2003). Analyzing quantitative data: From description to explanation. Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Bloyce, D., & Lovett, E. (2012). Planning for the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic legacy: A figurational analysis. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, 4(3), 361–377. https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2012.740063
   Google Scholar
• Bogart, K. R., & Dunn, D. S. (2019). Ableism special issue introduction. Journal of Social Issues, 75(3), 650–664. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12354
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonevski, B., Randell, M., Paul, C., Chapman, K., Twyman, L., Bryant, J., Brozek, I., & Hughes, C. (2014). Reaching the hard-to-reach: A systematic review of strategies for improving health and medical research with socially disadvantaged groups. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 14(42), 29–42. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-14-42
   Google Scholar
• Braye, S., Dixon, K., & Gibbons, T. (2013). ‘A mockery of equality’: An exploratory investigation into disabled activists' views of the Paralympic Games. Disability & Society, 28(7), 984–996. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687599.2012.748648
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Briant, E., Watson, N., & Philo, G. (2013). Reporting disability in the age of austerity: The changing face of media representation of disability and disabled people in the United Kingdom and the creation of new ‘folk devils. Disability & Society, 28(6), 874–889. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687599.2013.813837
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brittain, I. (2012). British media portrayals of Paralympic and disability sport. In O. J. Schantz & K. Gilbert (Eds.), Heroes or zeros? The media’s perceptions of Paralympic sport (pp. 105–113). Common Ground Publishing LLC.
   Google Scholar
• Brittain, I., & Beacom, A. (2016). Leveraging the London 2012 Paralympic Games: What legacy for disabled people?. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 40(6), 499–521. https://doi.org/10.1177/0193723516655580
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brittain, I., Biscaia, R., & Gérard, S. (2020). Ableism as a regulator of social practice and disabled peoples’ self-determination to participate in sport and physical activity. Leisure Studies, 39(2), 209–224. https://doi.org/10.1080/02614367.2019.1694569
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, C. (2020, 28 Jan). The Paralympic Games fails to increase disabled people’s participation in sport. The Conversation. Retrieved from https://theconversation.com/the-paralympic-games-fails-to-increase-disabled-peoples-participation-in-sport-130082
   Google Scholar
• Brown, C. (2019). “I still think we’ve got mountains to climb”: Evaluating the grassroots sport participation legacy of the London 2012 Paralympic Games for disabled people in England [University of Kent]. https://kar.kent.ac.uk/72201/
   Google Scholar
• Brown, C., & Pappous, A. S. (2018b). The organisational performance of national disability sport organisations during a time of austerity: A resource dependence theory perspective. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, 10(1), 63–78. https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2017.1381635
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, C., & Pappous, A. S. (2018a). The legacy element … “It Just Felt More Woolly”: Exploring the reasons for the decline in people with disabilities’ sport participation in England 5 years after the London 2012 Paralympic Games. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 42(5), 343–368. https://doi.org/10.1177/0193723518781237
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byers, T., Hayday, E., & Pappous, A. S. (2020). A new conceptualization of mega sports event legacy delivery: Wicked problems and critical realist solution. Sport Management Review, 23(2), 171–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2019.04.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell, F. A. K. (2001). Inciting legal fictions: ‘Disability's’ date with ontology and the ableist body of the law. Griffith Law Review, 10(1), 42–62.
   Google Scholar
• Cashman, R. (2006). The Bitter-Sweet Awakening: The legacy of the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games. New South Wales, Australia: Walla Walla Press. (Cashman, 2006)
   Google Scholar
• Christiaens, M. (2018). Towards mainstreaming: A principle – practice gap in the UK sports sector. Coventry University.
   Google Scholar
• Coalter, F. (2007). London Olympics 2012: 'the catalyst that inspires people to lead more active lives'? The Journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health, 127(3), 109–110. https://doi.org/10.1177/1466424007077342
   Google Scholar
• Coward, D., & Legg, D. (2011). Vancouver 2010. In D. Legg & K. Gilbert (Eds.), Paralympic legacies (pp. 131–141). Common Ground Publishing LLC.
   Google Scholar
• Cross, M. (2013). Demonised, impoverished and now forced into isolation: The fate of disabled people under austerity. Disability & Society, 28(5), 719–723. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687599.2013.808087
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crow, L. (2014). Scroungers and superhumans: Images of disability from the summer of 2012: A visual inquiry. Journal of Visual Culture, 13(2), 168–181. https://doi.org/10.1177/1470412914529109
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Darcy, S. & Appleby, L. (2011). Sydney 2000: Moving from post-hoc legacy to strategic vision and operational partnerships. In: D. Legg & K. Gilbert. (Eds.), Paralympic Legacies. (pp. Champaign Illinois Common Ground Publishing LLC
   Google Scholar
• Darcy, S., Lock, D., & Taylor, T. (2017). Enabling inclusive sport participation: Effects of disability and support needs on constraints to sport participation. Leisure Sciences, 39(1), 20–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/01490400.2016.1151842
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Department for Culture, Media & Sport (DCMS). (2008). Before, during and after: Making the most of the London 2012 Games. Department for Culture, Media & Sport. http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk
   Google Scholar
• Department for Culture, Media & Sport (DCMS). (2010). London 2012: A legacy for disabled people. Department for Culture, Media & Sport. http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk
   Google Scholar
• ECORYS. (2018). Mapping on access to sport for people with disabilities: A report to the European Commission. https://ec.europa.eu/sport/sites/sport/files/mapping_access_to_sport_for_people_with_disabiliites_final.pdf
   Google Scholar
• English Federation of Disability Sport (EFDS). (2013). EFDS report of the sport and recreation alliance’s sports club survey 2013: A baseline understanding of the provision for disabled people among UK sports clubs. EFDS. http://www.activityalliance.org.uk/how-we-help/research/1909-efds-report-on-sport-and-recreation-alliances-sports-club-survey-2013
   Google Scholar
• Gibson, O. (2009, October 21). Legacy is the story for 2012, says Coe. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2009/oct/21/sebastian-coe-london-2012-olympics-legacy
   Google Scholar
• Gibson, O. (2012, 13 August). London 2012: Invest in elite sport for grassroots legacy, says Lord Coe. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2012/aug/13/london-2012-lord-coe-investment-elite-sport
   Google Scholar
• Gilbert, K., & Schantz, O. J. (2012). An implosion of discontent. In O. J. Schantz & K. Gilbert (Eds.), Heroes or zeros? The media’s perceptions of Paralympic sport (pp. 225–237). Common Ground Publishing LLC.
   Google Scholar
• Grix, J., & Carmichael, F. (2012). Why do governments invest in elite sport? A polemic. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, 4(1), 73–90. https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2011.627358
   Google Scholar
• HM Government. (2015). Sporting future: A new strategy for an active nation. Cabinet Office. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/sporting-future-a-new-strategy-for-an-active-nation
   Google Scholar
• Howe, P. D. (2011). Cyborg and supercrip: The Paralympics technology and the (dis)empowerment of disabled athletes. Sociology, 45(5), 868–882. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038038511413421
   Google Scholar
• Howe, P. D., & Silva, C. F. (2018). The fiddle of using the Paralympic Games as a vehicle for expanding [dis]ability sport participation. Sport in Society, 21(1), 125–136. https://doi.org/10.1080/17430437.2016.1225885
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughes, K. H. (2013). Sport mega-events and a legacy of increased sport participation: An Olympic promise or an Olympic dream? [Doctoral thesis]. Leeds Metropolitan University.
   Google Scholar
• Ives, B., Clayton, B., Brittain, I., & Mackintosh, C. (2019). I’ll always find a perfectly justified reason for not doing it’: Challenges for disability sport and physical activity in the United Kingdom. Sport in Society, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/17430437.2019.1703683
   Google Scholar
• Jaarsma, E. A., Dijkstra, P. U., Geertzen, J. H. B., & Dekker, R. (2014). Barriers to and facilitators of sports participation for people with physical disabilities: A systematic review. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 24(6), 871–881. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.12218
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaarsma, E., Haslett, D., & Smith, B. (2019). Improving communication of information about physical activity opportunities for people with disabilities. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly: APAQ, 36(2), 185–201. https://doi.org/10.1123/apaq.2018-0020
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, E. (2019). Delivering activity to disabled people: The workforce perception gap. http://www.activityalliance.org.uk/assets/000/002/641/Activity_Alliance_Deliverer_Perceptions_Research_Report_Final_Accessible_PDF_report_original.pdf?1548778930
   Google Scholar
• Johnson, E., & Spring, E. (2018). The Activity Trap: Disabled people’s fear of being active. http://www.activityalliance.org.uk/how-we-help/research/the-activity-trap
   Google Scholar
• Kung, S. P., & Taylor, P. (2014). The use of public sports facilities by the disabled in England. Sport Management Review, 17(1), 8–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2013.08.009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lyle, J. (2009). Sporting success, role models and participation: A policy related review. Sportscotland. https://sportscotland.org.uk/documents/resources/sportingsuccessrolemodelsandparticipation.pdf
   Google Scholar
• McKnight, A. (2014). Disabled people financial histories: Uncovering the disability wealth-penalty. Centre for Analysis of Social Exclusion, CASE/181. http://sticerd.lse.ac.uk/dps/case/cp/casepaper181.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Misener, L., Darcy, S., Legg, D., & Gilbert, K. (2013). Beyond Olympic legacy: Understanding Paralympic legacy through a thematic analysis. Journal of Sport Management, 27(4), 329–341. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.27.4.329
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Misener, L., McPherson, G., McGillivray, D., & Legg, D. (2018). Leveraging disability sport events: Impacts, promises, and possibilities. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Office for Disability Issues (2011). London 2012: A legacy for disabled people. Office for Disability Issues. http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130703134200/http://odi.dwp.gov.uk/docs/wor/leg/legacy-full.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Pallant, J. F. (2016). SPSS survival manual: A step by step guide to data analysis using IBM SPSS (6th ed.). Allen & Unwin.
   Google Scholar
• Pappous, A. S., & Brown, C. (2018). Paralympic legacies: A critical perspective. In I. Brittain & A. Beacom (Eds.), The Palgrave handbook of Paralympic studies (pp 647–664). Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Pawson, R. (2013). The science of evaluation: A realist manifesto. Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Pawson, R., & Tilley, N. (1997). Realistic evaluation. Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Pawson, R., & Tilley, N. (2004). Realist evaluation. http://www.communitymatters.com.au/RE_chapter.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Payne, W., Reynolds, M., Brown, S., & Fleming, A. (2003). Sports role models and their impact on participation in physical activity: A literature review. VicHealth.
   Google Scholar
• Perreault, S., & Vallerand, R. J. (2007). A test of self‐determination theory with wheelchair basketball players with and without disability. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly: APAQ, 24(4), 305–316. https://doi.org/10.1123/apaq.24.4.305
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prochaska, J. O., DiClemente, C. C., & Norcross, J. C. (1992). In search of how people change: Applications to addictive behaviors. The American Psychologist, 47(9), 1102–1114. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.47.9.1102
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Purdue, D. E. J., & Howe, P. D. (2012). Empower, inspire, achieve: (Dis)empowerment and the Paralympic Games. Disability & Society, 27(7), 903–916. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687599.2012.695576
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramchandani, G., Davies, L. E., Coleman, R., Shibli, S., & Bingham, J. (2015). Limited or lasting legacy? The effect of non-mega sport event attendance on participation. European Sport Management Quarterly, 15(1), 93–110. https://doi.org/10.1080/16184742.2014.996583
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rockliffe, L., Chorley, A. J., Marlow, L. A. V., & Forster, A. S. (2018). It’s hard to reach the “hard-to-reach”: The challenges of recruiting people who do not access preventative healthcare services into interview studies. International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-Being, 13(1), 1479582. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482631.2018.1479582
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rowe, N. (2015). Sporting capital: A theoretical and empirical analysis of sport participation determinants and its application to sports development policy and practice. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, 7(1), 43–61. https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2014.915228
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scelza, W. M., Kalpakjian, C. Z., Zemper, E. D., & Tate, D. G. (2005). Perceived barriers to exercise in people with spinal cord injury. American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, 84(8), 576–583. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.phm.0000171172.96290.67
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwarzer, R., Lippke, S., & Luszczynska, A. (2011). Mechanisms of health behavior change in persons with chronic illness or disability: The Health Action Process Approach (HAPA). Rehabilitation Psychology, 56(3), 161–170. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024509
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silva, C. F., & Howe, P. D. (2012). The (in)validity of supercrip representation of Paralympian athletes. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 36(2), 174–194. https://doi.org/10.1177/0193723511433865
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sport and Recreation Alliance. (2013). Sports club survey 2013. https://www.sportandrecreation.org.uk/policy/research-publications/sports-club-survey-2013
   Google Scholar
• Sport England. (2017). Active lives survey 2015-16: Year 1 report. Sport England. https://www.sportengland.org/media/11498/active-lives-survey-yr-1-report.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Sport England. (2016). Towards an active nation: Strategy 2016–2021. Sport England. https://direct.sportengland.org/active-nation/our-strategy/
   Google Scholar
• Sun, S., Yan, R., Mao, A., Chao, L., & Jing, T. (2011). China and the development of sport for persons with a disability, 1978-2008: A review. Sport in Society: Cultures, Commerce, Media, Politics, 14(9), 1192–1210. https://doi.org/10.1080/17430437.2011.614776
   Google Scholar
• Thomas, C. (1999). Female forms: Experiencing and understanding disability. Open University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Thomas, N., & Smith, A. (2003). Preoccupied with able-bodiedness? An analysis of the British media coverage of the 2000 Paralympic Games. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 20(2), 166–181. https://doi.org/10.1123/apaq.20.2.166
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tilley, N. (2000, September). Realistic evaluation: An overview [Paper presentation]. Founding Conference of the Danish Evaluation Society. http://healthimpactassessment.pbworks.com/f/Realistic+evaluation+an+overview+-+UoNT+England+-+2000.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Veal, A. J., & Darcy, S. (2014). Research methods in sport studies and sport management: A practical guide. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Watson, N. (2002). Well, I know this is going to sound very strange to you, but I don't see myself as a disabled person: Identity and disability. Disability & Society, 17(5), 509–527. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687590220148496
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weed, M. (2009). The potential of the demonstration effect to grow and sustain participation in sport. Centre for Sport, Physical Education & Activity Research (SPEAR).
   Google Scholar
• Weed, M., & Dowse, S. (2009). A missed opportunity waiting to happen? The social legacy potential of the London 2012 Paralympic Games. Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, 1(2), 170–174. https://doi.org/10.1080/19407960902992241
   Google Scholar
• Weed, M., Coren, E., Fiore, J., Mansfield, L., Wellard, I., Chatziefstathiou, D., & Dowse, S. (2009). A systematic review of the evidence base for developing a physical activity and health legacy from the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games. Department of Health.
   Google Scholar
• Weed, M., Coren, E., Fiore, J., Wellard, I., Chatziefstathiou, D., Mansfield, L., & Dowse, S. (2015). The Olympic Games and raising sport participation: A systematic review of evidence and an interrogation of policy for a demonstration effect. European Sport Management Quarterly, 15(2), 195–226. https://doi.org/10.1080/16184742.2014.998695
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williamson, C., Baker, G., Mutrie, N., Niven, A., & Kelly, P. (2020). Get the message? A scoping review of physical activity messaging. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 17(1), 15–51. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-020-00954-3
   Google Scholar